Während eines Experimentes an der Forschungsstation Melpitz des IfT (Institut für Tropossphärenforschung) im September 1997 wurden erstmalig zwei verschiedene Meßmethoden gleichzeitig eingesetzt, die flächengemittelte Lufttemperaturen (Akustische Tomographie - Leipziger Institut für Meteorologie (LIM)) sowie liniengemittelte fühlbare Wärmeflüsse (Scintillometertechnik - IfT) lieferten. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß teilweise erhebliche Temperaturdifferenzen an einem Strahlungstag auf dieser oberflächlich betrachteten horizontal homogenen Wiese existieren. Die geringe Datenbasis, größtenteils bedingt durch die ungünstige Anströmrichtung während dieses Zeitraums, läßt noch keinen sicheren Schluß zu, ob diese horizontalen Temperaturdifferenzen für die ebenfalls beobachteten horizontalen Unterschiede der vertikalen fühlbaren Wärmeflüsse und damit für die manchmal in Melpitz beobachtete Nicht-Schließung der Energiebilanz verantwortlich sind. / During an experiment at the Iff field research station Melpitz in September 1997 for the first time two different techniques were used to determine simultaneously area averaged air temperatures (Acoustic Tomography -LIM) and line averaged sensible heat fluxes (Scintillation technique - IfT). lt could be shown that on a \'golden\' day appreciably large temperature differences occurred on this superficially considered horizontal homogeneous meadow. Because of the weak data base mostly due to difficult fetch conditions it could not be proven that these temperature differences led to the horizontal differences of vertical sensible heat fluxes and therefore to the sometimes observed non-closure of the energy balance in Melpitz.

Underwater communication is an important research of applied underwater acoustic since sound wave is the only effective way of transmitting messages under water. Underwater communication has always been a complicated problem especially in the shallow water environment due to the influence of multipath propagation. In the past, research on underwater communication had been done mostly by numerical simulation or laboratory experiments instead of doing in real oceanic areas. As a result, several research teams such as the Institute of Oceanography in Taiwan University, the Naval Research Laboratory and the acoustic laboratory of National Sun Yat-sen University Institute of Applied Marine Physics and Undersea Technology had executed a one-week real oceanic area experiment of underwater networking, communication, and acoustical tomography in Sizih Bay Marine Test Field. The experiment adopted 9 sets of underwater modem distributed within the range of 30 square kilometer to transmit, receive signals and collect CTD data. This research adopted part of the data gained from the experiment mentioned above to progress the feasibility test of acoustic tomography on current estimate to shallow water environment. By transmitting and receiving signals between stations, This research study the travel time difference between transmitting signals forward and backward caused by the flow field when using high frequency source in shallow water environment. This research estimated the average current speed and compared it to the weather buoy data from the Harbor and Marine Technology Center. This research discovered that most of the estimated results correspond to the weather buoy's ADCP data. Finally, this research adopted the method which does not require complex mathematics operation to estimate the two-dimensional flow field, and probe into what influence the angle between stations would bring to the deviation of estimating flow speed by using the Monte Carlo method.

The main objective of this master’s thesis is to investigate the possibility of applying spatially-filtered continuous-wave acoustic tomography to the detection of breast cancer. A continuous acoustic wave is transmitted through the specimen in this tomographic imaging method. Any scattered waves that do not positively contribute to the projection are filtered out using an aperture. There is evidence to suggest that cancerous lesions in the breast have a higher speed of sound than surrounding tissues. This imaging method produces two tomograms of the specimen simultaneously: one showing the internal speed of sound, and the other showing the internal acoustic attenuation coefficient. There is the possibility for a third imaging modality, acoustic dispersion tomography, to be applied to this imaging method. Two proof-of-concept prototype spatially-filtered continuous-wave acoustic tomography scanners were designed and built: one that uses a collimated beam to interrogate the specimen, and another that uses a confocal beam. A least-squares tomographic reconstruction algorithm was chosen to reconstruct the tomograms this method creates. A prostate phantom and a breast phantom were imaged with the confocal tomographic scanner. The tomograms of the prostate phantom show two 1 cm lesions which are consistent with information from the phantom manufacturer. Further work is required to properly validate the speed of sound and acoustic attenuation measurements this method produces. / Graduate

Die vorgestellte Methode der akustischen Tomographie (Simultane Iterative Rekonstruktionstechnik) und ein spezieller Auswertungsalgorithmus können flächengemittelte Werte meteorologischer Größen direkt bereitstellen. Somit werden zur Validierung numerischer mikroskaliger Atmosphärenmodelle weitgehend konsistente Daten geliefert. Das Verfahren verwendet die horizontale Ausbreitung von Schallstrahlen in der atmosphärischen Bodenschicht. Um einen allgemeinen Überblick zur Schallausbreitung unter verschiedenen atmosphärischen Bedingungen zu erhalten, wird ein zweidimensionales Schallausbreitungsmodell genutzt. Von Messungen der akustischen Laufzeit zwischen Sendern und Empfängern an verschiedenen Punkten in einem Meßfeld kann der Zustand der durchquerten Atmosphäre abgeschätzt werden. Die Ableitung flächengemittelter Werte für die Schallgeschwindigkeit und der daraus deduzierten Lufttemperatur resultiert aus der Inversion der Laufzeitwerte für alle möglichen Schallwege. Das angewandte zweidimensionale Tomographiemodell mit geradliniger Schallstrahlapproximation stellt dabei geringe Computeranforderungen und ist auch während des online-Betriebes einfach zu handhaben. / The presented method of acoustic tomography (Simultaneous Iterative Reconstruction Technique) and a special algorithm of analysis can directly provide area averaged values of meteorological quantities. As a result rather consistent data will be delivered for validation of numerical atmospheric rnicro-scale models. The procedure uses the horizontal propagation of sound waves in the atmospheric surface layer. To obtain a general overview of the sound propagation under various atmospheric conditions a two-dimensional ray-tracing model is used. The state of the crossed atmosphere can be estimated from measurements of acoustic travel time between sources and receivers on different points in an tomographic array. Derivation of area averaged values of the sound speed and furthermore of air temperature results from the inversion of travel time values for all possible acoustic paths. Thereby, the applied straight-ray two-dimensional tomographic model is characterised as a method with small computational requirements and simple handling, especially, during online working.

The method of acoustic tomography, based on external sonic energy, is applied inside the atmospheric surface layer to observe near-surface temperature fields. Important advantages of this technique as compared to other measurement methods are their remote-sensing capacity and the possibility to directly derivate area-averaged meteorological quantities. The needed input data for the tomographically inverse algorithm are provided by the interaction of sound waves with the scanned atmospheric layer. The resulting horizontal slices lead to statements on the inhomogeneity of the underlying surface which may result in noticeable difficulties during the analysis of measuring campaigns with conventional methods. / Die auf der Aussendung von Schallenergie basierende Methode der akustischen Tomographie wird in der atmosphärischen Bodenschicht angewendet, um bodennahe Temperaturfelder zu beobachten. Bedeutende Vorteile dieses Verfahrens im Vergleich zu anderen Meßmethoden sind die Fernerkundungskapazität und die Möglichkeit, flächengemittelte Werte meteorologischer Größen direkt abzuleiten. Die für den tomographischen Invertierungsalgorithmus benötigten Eingangsdaten werden durch die Wechselwirkung von Schallwellen mit der durchstrahlten Luftschicht bereitgestellt. Die resultierenden horizontalen Schnittbilder führen zu Darstellungen der Inhomogenität der Oberfläche. Letztere können beachtliche Schwierigkeiten während der Analyse von Messkampagnen mit konventionellen Methoden hervorrufen.

Die akustische Laufzeittomographie ist ein Fernerkundungsverfahren, mit dem zweidimensionale horizontale Verteilungen von Wind und Temperatur in der von turbulenten Prozessen charakterisierten atmosphärischen Grenzschicht bestimmt werden können. Um die Fähigkeit des tomographischen Invertierungsalgorithmus zur Auflösbarkeit bestimmter turbulenter Strukturen zu testen, werden Sensitivitätsstudien durchgeführt. Hierzu wird eine Temperaturzeitreihe erzeugt, deren Spektrum eine charakteristische turbulente Struktur aufgeprägt wird. Nach der Verteilung dieser Temperaturen auf ein zweidimensionales Feld entsprechend einer vorgegebenen Messgeometrie (bekannte Laufwege) können diese Werte in Laufzeiten umgerechnet werden. Die erzeugten künstlichen Messwerte dienen neben den Positionsdaten der Sender und Empfänger als Eingangsgrößen für den Invertierungsalgorithmus. Die nachfolgende Rekonstruktion der meteorologischen Felder aus den Eingangsdaten, deren Analyse und der Vergleich mit den simulierten Reihen ermöglicht es, den Einfluss des verwendeten Algorithmus auf die Datenstruktur abzuschätzen. Des Weiteren wurden bei den Simulationen reale Messbedingungen nachgestellt. Hierzu wurde die systembedingte maximale Wiederholrate einer Einzelmessung, sowie die Unsicherheiten bei der Bestimmung der Schalllaufzeit berücksichtigt. / Acoustic travel time tomography is a remote sensing method to determine two-dimensional horizontal distributions of wind and temperature within the atmospheric boundary layer which is dominated by turbulent processes. To investigate the capability of the tomographic inversion algorithm to solve definite turbulent structures, sensitivity studies have been carried out. For that purpose, temperature time series have been generated and a characteristic turbulent structure has been impressed upon their frequency spectra. After distributing these data to a two-dimensional field which arises from the measuring geometry, i.e. the distribution of sound sources and receivers, and the chosen tomographic grid-cell-dimension, the temperature data can be converted to travel times according to the sound ray paths through the tomographic grid. These synthetic travel time data as well as the positions of the sound sources and receivers have been used as the input parameters for the tomographic inversion algorithm. The following reconstruction of the meteorological fields from the input values, their analysis and comparison to the simulated time series and the corresponding spectra allow an estimation of the capability of the inversion algorithm used to solve turbulent structures. Furthermore, real measuring conditions have been simulated. To that purpose, the maximal repeat rates of an individual measurement as well as the uncertainties of the tomographic system have been considered.

Conventional micro-meteorological measuring methods are not particularly suitable for the investigation of the energy exchange under heterogeneous surface conditions. To consider the influence of the different surface properties, area-covered and spatially averaged meteorological measurements in combination with highly resolved simulations are necessary. In this context, the method of acoustic travel time tomography is introduced to provide information about the horizontal temperature and wind field. Within a field experiment (STINHO-1; Melpitz 2001) the tomographic system and conventional meteorological equipment were utilised inside the investigation area with an extension of several hundred meters (300 x 700 m2), which was arranged over areas with different surface properties: grassland and bare soil. The results of the field experiment show that differences between the measuring systems (insitu and remote sensing) exist and the heterogeneity of the underlying surface is visible in the near surface temperature and wind field at a scale, which can be resolved with highly resolved numerical models. Depending on the incoming solar radiation and the local advection regional distinctions in the air temperature and wind field as well as in the vertical sensible heat fluxes were observed. The investigations demonstrate that the sensitivity of the Acoustic Tomography is sufficient to verify gradients in the meteorological fields even when the horizontal differences are small. / Zur Untersuchung des Energieaustausches über heterogenem Gelände sind konventionelle mikro-meteorologische Messungen und Modellvorstellungen allein nicht ausreichend. Um den Einfluss unterschiedlicher Oberflächen besser berücksichtigen zu können, sind flächendeckende und räumlich mittelnde meteorologische Messungen kombiniert mit hoch aufgelösten numerischen Simulationen notwendig.In diesem Kontext wird die Methode der Akustischen Laufzeitomographie vorgestellt, mit der horizontale Wind- und Temperaturfelder in geeigneter Weise bereitgestellt werden können. Im Rahmen eines Feldexperimentes (STINHO-1; Melpitz 2001) wurde das tomographische System zusammen mit konventionellen meteorologischen Geräten in einem Untersuchungsgebiet mit einer Ausdehnung von mehreren hundert Metern (300 x 700 m2) über unterschiedlichen Oberflächen (Wiese und gepflügter Acker) eingesetzt. Die Ergebnisse des Feldexperimentes zeigen, dass Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Messverfahren existierten und die Heterogenität der Unterlage in den oberflächennahen Temperatur- und Windfeldern auf einer Skala sichtbar ist, die mit kleinskaligen numerischen Modellen aufgelöst werden kann. Die vorgestellten Untersuchungen demonstrieren, dass die Sensitivität der Akustischen Tomographie hinreichend ist, um Gradienten meteorologischer Felder auch bei geringeren horizontalen Unterschieden nachzuweisen.

Non-intrusive acoustic instruments that measure fluid velocity and temperature have been restricted to low subsonic Mach number applications due to increased complexities associated with acoustic refraction, low signal-to-noise ratios, and a limited range of practical applications. In the current work, the use of acoustics for non-intrusive flow monitoring in compressible flows is explored and a novel sonic anemometry and thermometry (SAT) technique is developed. Using multiple arrangements of SAT equipment, a compressible acoustic tomography technique was also developed to resolve flow non-uniformities. Three validation experiments were used to investigate the novel SAT technique performance, and a fourth validation experiment was used to explore compressible flow tomography capabilities. In the first experiment, an unheated jet was used to verify that the acoustic technique could measure fluid velocities in high subsonic Mach number flows. The application demonstrated velocity root mean square (RMS) errors of 9 m/s in unheated jet flows up to Mach 0.83. Next, a heated jet facility was used to assess the impact of fluid temperature on measurement accuracy. Using jet Mach numbers up to 0.7 and total temperatures up to 700 K, RMS velocity and static temperature errors up to 8.5 m/s (2.4% of maximum jet velocity) and 23.3 K (3.3% of total temperature) were observed. Finally, the acoustic technique was implemented at the exhaust of a JT15D-1A turbofan engine to investigate technique sensitivity to bypass engine conditions. A mass flow rate and thrust estimation approach was developed and RMS errors of 1.1 kg/s and 200 N were observed in conditions up to an exhaust Mach number of 0.48. Since modern acoustic tomography techniques require an incompressible flow assumption for velocity detection, advancements were made to extend acoustic tomography methods to compressible flow scenarios for the final experiment. The approach was tested in the heated jet operating at Mach 0.48 and 0.72 (total temperature of 675 K, approximately 2.25 times the ambient) and numerical simulations were used to identify technique sensitivity to input variables and system design. This research marks the first time an acoustic method has been used to estimate compressible flow velocities and temperatures. / Ph. D. / Traditionally, intrusive instruments such as pressure and temperature probes have been used to measure flow conditions. While these instruments are effective and widely used, they generate turbulence and produce blockage which could be undesirable in a variety of applications. In the current work, the use of non-intrusive acoustic measurements for flow velocity and temperature detection in compressible flow (Mach>0.3) environments was investigated. First, a novel acoustic technique was developed for compressible flow applications. The new approach was used to measure jet velocities and temperatures in compressible flow conditions for the first time. Later, this technique was implemented at the exhaust of a turbofan gas turbine engine. The results of this experiment demonstrated that acoustic measurements could be used to estimate engine mass flow rate and thrust in a non-intrusive manner. The final portion of this research focuses on the non-intrusive detection of fluid velocity and temperature gradients. Since existing acoustic techniques require an incompressible flow assumption, a novel approach was identified and used to perform a validation experiment. The experimental findings confirmed that non-intrusive acoustic measurements could be used to measure velocity and temperature gradients in compressible flow environments.

Acoustic travel time tomography is presented as an experimental technique for remote monitoring of spatially averaged meteorological quantities, such as the virtual air temperature and the horizontal wind speed. This ground based remote sensing technique uses the nearly horizontal propagation of sound waves in the atmospheric surface layer. Here the acoustic travel time tomography was applied by measuring the travel time at defined propagation paths between several sound sources and receivers. The resulting sound speed was used to obtain estimates of the meteorological parameters. Several measuring campaigns were carried out to compare the acoustically derived data with conventional systems. The results of a cross validation during a field experiment in autumn 2000 are presented, where receivers at different heights above the ground were used. / Die Akustische Laufzeittomographie wird als ein Verfahren zur Fernerkundung räumlich gemittelter Größen, wie der virtuellen Temperatur und der horizontalen Windgeschwindigkeit, vorgestellt. Dieses bodengebundene Fernerkundungsverfahren beruht auf der annährend horizontalen Schallausbreitung in der atmosphärischen Grenzschicht. Das hier angewendete Verfahren der Laufzeittomographie beruht auf der Bestimmung der Ausbreitungszeit von Schallwellen zwischen mehreren Schallsendern und -empfängern. Die daraus abgeleitete Schallgeschwindigkeit liefert eine Information über die interessierenden meteorologischen Parameter. Eine Reihe von Feldexperimenten wurde durchgeführt mit dem Ziel, die akustisch bestimmten Größen mit denen konventioneller Verfahren zu vergleichen. Hier werden die Ergebnisse eines Vergleiches im Herbst 2000 präsentiert, bei dem die Schallempfänger in unterschiedlichen Höhen über dem Boden angebracht wurden.

Während eines Experimentes an der Forschungsstation Melpitz des IfT (Institut für Tropossphärenforschung) im September 1997 wurden erstmalig zwei verschiedene Meßmethoden gleichzeitig eingesetzt, die flächengemittelte Lufttemperaturen (Akustische Tomographie - Leipziger Institut für Meteorologie (LIM)) sowie liniengemittelte fühlbare Wärmeflüsse (Scintillometertechnik - IfT) lieferten. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß teilweise erhebliche Temperaturdifferenzen an einem Strahlungstag auf dieser oberflächlich betrachteten horizontal homogenen Wiese existieren. Die geringe Datenbasis, größtenteils bedingt durch die ungünstige Anströmrichtung während dieses Zeitraums, läßt noch keinen sicheren Schluß zu, ob diese horizontalen Temperaturdifferenzen für die ebenfalls beobachteten horizontalen Unterschiede der vertikalen fühlbaren Wärmeflüsse und damit für die manchmal in Melpitz beobachtete Nicht-Schließung der Energiebilanz verantwortlich sind. / During an experiment at the Iff field research station Melpitz in September 1997 for the first time two different techniques were used to determine simultaneously area averaged air temperatures (Acoustic Tomography -LIM) and line averaged sensible heat fluxes (Scintillation technique - IfT). lt could be shown that on a \''golden\'' day appreciably large temperature differences occurred on this superficially considered horizontal homogeneous meadow. Because of the weak data base mostly due to difficult fetch conditions it could not be proven that these temperature differences led to the horizontal differences of vertical sensible heat fluxes and therefore to the sometimes observed non-closure of the energy balance in Melpitz.