The current study examined the psychological effects of recurring earthquake aftershocks in the city of Christchurch, New Zealand, which began in September 2010. Although it has been identified that exposure to ongoing adverse events such as continuing terrorist attacks generally leads to the development of increasing symptomology over time, differences in perceived controllability and blame between man-made and natural adverse events may contribute to differences in symptom trajectories. Residents of two Christchurch suburbs differentially affected by the earthquakes (N = 128) were assessed on measures of acute stress disorder, generalised anxiety, and depression, at two time points approximately 4-5 months apart, in order to determine whether symptoms intensified or declined over time in the face of ongoing aftershocks. At time 1, clinically significant levels of acute stress were identified in both suburbs, whereas clinical elevations in depression and anxiety were only evident in the most affected suburb. By time 2, both suburbs had fallen below the clinical range on all three symptom types, identifying a pattern of habituation to the aftershocks. Acute stress symptoms at time 2 were the most highly associated with the aftershocks, compared to symptoms of generalised anxiety and depression which were identified by participant reports to be more likely associated with other earthquake-related factors, such as insurance troubles and less frequent socialisation. The finding that exposure to ongoing earthquake aftershocks leads to a decline in symptoms over time may have important implications for the assessment of traumatic stress-related disorders, and provision of services following natural, as compared to man-made, adverse events.

We present an evidence-based review of post-trauma interventions used to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Literature search of PubMed from 1988 to March 2016 using keywords “Early Intervention AND Prevention of PTSD” yielded 142 articles, of which 52 intervention studies and 6 meta-analyses were included in our review. Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy and modified prolonged exposure delivered within weeks of a potentially traumatic event for people showing signs of distress have the most evidence in the treatment of acute stress and early PTSD symptoms, and the prevention of PTSD. Even though several pharmacological agents have been tried, only hydrocortisone prior to high-risk surgery, severe traumatic injury, or during acute sepsis has adequate evidence for effectiveness in the reduction of acute stress symptoms and prevention of PTSD. There is an urgent need to determine the best targets for interventions after trauma to accelerate recovery and prevent PTSD.

O Transtorno de Estresse Agudo (TEA) reúne o conjunto dos sintomas presentes nos indivíduos diante exposição a um evento traumático. A maneira como os indivíduos enfrentam os acontecimentos da vida está relacionada a vários fatores como as características de personalidade e ao estilo defensivo, ambos com uma importante influência no momento pós-trauma. O objetivo desta investigação foi pesquisar as caracteristicas de personalidade e o estilo defensivo em pacientes que sofreram trauma físico e desenvolveram TEA. O delinemeanto utilizado foi um estudo transversal controlado. A amostra foi por conveniência, composta por 18 pacientes com TEA e 42 pacientes sem TEA que sofreram trauma físico e necessitaram de internação em um Hospital referência em trauma em Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Os instrumentos utilizados foram um questionário estruturado, entrevista clínica, questionário de nível sócio econômico (NSE), questionário de Estilo Defensivo (DSQ), Bateria Fatorial de Peronalidade (BFP) e “The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview” (M.I.N.I.). Resultados: Os dois grupos apresentarm uma distribuição homogênea em relação às variáveis clínicas e demográficas. Indivíduos com TEA apresentaram médias elevadas no fator de Neuroticismo da Bateria Fatorial de Personalidade, bem como nas sub-facetas de vulnerabilidade, instabilidade emocional e depressão. Em relação aos mecanismos defensivos foi demonstrado que a projeção, a agressão passiva, a atuação, o deslocamento, a cisão e a somatização podem estar relacionados a uma maior chance para o desenvolvimento de transtorno de estresse agudo em vítimas de trauma físico. Nesta amostra, os pacientes que desenvolveram transtorno de estresse agudo utilizaram mecanismos de defesas mais primitivos quando comparados aos indivíduos que não desenvolveram TEA. Além disso, são pessoas mais instáveis emocionalmente, apresentando um padrão de comportamento negativo em relação aos eventos cotidianos. / The Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) covers all the symptoms present in individuals before exposure to a traumatic event. The way individuals face the events of life is related to several factors such as personality characteristics and defensive style, both with an important influence in the post traumatic moment. The purpose of this research is to investigate the personality characteristics and defensive style in patients who have suffered physical trauma and developed ASD. The delimitation used was a controlled cross-sectional study. A convenience sample was used, consisting of 18 patients with ASD and 42 healthy who have suffered physical trauma and required admission to a referral hospital in trauma in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The instruments used were a structured questionnaire, clinical interview, questionnaire (NSE), Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ), Factorial Personality Battery (BFP) and The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). Results: The two groups presented a homogeneous distribution in relation to clinical and demographic variables. Individuals with ASD had a high average in Neuroticism factor of Personality Factor Battery and the vulnerability of sub-facets, emotional instability and depression. In relation to the defensive mechanisms it has been shown that the projection, passive aggression, acting, displacement, division and somatization may be related to a greater chance for the development of acute stress disorder in physical trauma. In this sample, patients who developed acute stress disorder used more primitive defense mechanisms when compared to the patients without acute stress disorder. Besides that, they are more emotionally unstable people, having a negative pattern of behavior in relation to the daily events.

O Transtorno de Estresse Agudo (TEA) reúne o conjunto dos sintomas presentes nos indivíduos diante exposição a um evento traumático. A maneira como os indivíduos enfrentam os acontecimentos da vida está relacionada a vários fatores como as características de personalidade e ao estilo defensivo, ambos com uma importante influência no momento pós-trauma. O objetivo desta investigação foi pesquisar as caracteristicas de personalidade e o estilo defensivo em pacientes que sofreram trauma físico e desenvolveram TEA. O delinemeanto utilizado foi um estudo transversal controlado. A amostra foi por conveniência, composta por 18 pacientes com TEA e 42 pacientes sem TEA que sofreram trauma físico e necessitaram de internação em um Hospital referência em trauma em Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Os instrumentos utilizados foram um questionário estruturado, entrevista clínica, questionário de nível sócio econômico (NSE), questionário de Estilo Defensivo (DSQ), Bateria Fatorial de Peronalidade (BFP) e “The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview” (M.I.N.I.). Resultados: Os dois grupos apresentarm uma distribuição homogênea em relação às variáveis clínicas e demográficas. Indivíduos com TEA apresentaram médias elevadas no fator de Neuroticismo da Bateria Fatorial de Personalidade, bem como nas sub-facetas de vulnerabilidade, instabilidade emocional e depressão. Em relação aos mecanismos defensivos foi demonstrado que a projeção, a agressão passiva, a atuação, o deslocamento, a cisão e a somatização podem estar relacionados a uma maior chance para o desenvolvimento de transtorno de estresse agudo em vítimas de trauma físico. Nesta amostra, os pacientes que desenvolveram transtorno de estresse agudo utilizaram mecanismos de defesas mais primitivos quando comparados aos indivíduos que não desenvolveram TEA. Além disso, são pessoas mais instáveis emocionalmente, apresentando um padrão de comportamento negativo em relação aos eventos cotidianos. / The Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) covers all the symptoms present in individuals before exposure to a traumatic event. The way individuals face the events of life is related to several factors such as personality characteristics and defensive style, both with an important influence in the post traumatic moment. The purpose of this research is to investigate the personality characteristics and defensive style in patients who have suffered physical trauma and developed ASD. The delimitation used was a controlled cross-sectional study. A convenience sample was used, consisting of 18 patients with ASD and 42 healthy who have suffered physical trauma and required admission to a referral hospital in trauma in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The instruments used were a structured questionnaire, clinical interview, questionnaire (NSE), Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ), Factorial Personality Battery (BFP) and The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). Results: The two groups presented a homogeneous distribution in relation to clinical and demographic variables. Individuals with ASD had a high average in Neuroticism factor of Personality Factor Battery and the vulnerability of sub-facets, emotional instability and depression. In relation to the defensive mechanisms it has been shown that the projection, passive aggression, acting, displacement, division and somatization may be related to a greater chance for the development of acute stress disorder in physical trauma. In this sample, patients who developed acute stress disorder used more primitive defense mechanisms when compared to the patients without acute stress disorder. Besides that, they are more emotionally unstable people, having a negative pattern of behavior in relation to the daily events.

O Transtorno de Estresse Agudo (TEA) reúne o conjunto dos sintomas presentes nos indivíduos diante exposição a um evento traumático. A maneira como os indivíduos enfrentam os acontecimentos da vida está relacionada a vários fatores como as características de personalidade e ao estilo defensivo, ambos com uma importante influência no momento pós-trauma. O objetivo desta investigação foi pesquisar as caracteristicas de personalidade e o estilo defensivo em pacientes que sofreram trauma físico e desenvolveram TEA. O delinemeanto utilizado foi um estudo transversal controlado. A amostra foi por conveniência, composta por 18 pacientes com TEA e 42 pacientes sem TEA que sofreram trauma físico e necessitaram de internação em um Hospital referência em trauma em Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Os instrumentos utilizados foram um questionário estruturado, entrevista clínica, questionário de nível sócio econômico (NSE), questionário de Estilo Defensivo (DSQ), Bateria Fatorial de Peronalidade (BFP) e “The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview” (M.I.N.I.). Resultados: Os dois grupos apresentarm uma distribuição homogênea em relação às variáveis clínicas e demográficas. Indivíduos com TEA apresentaram médias elevadas no fator de Neuroticismo da Bateria Fatorial de Personalidade, bem como nas sub-facetas de vulnerabilidade, instabilidade emocional e depressão. Em relação aos mecanismos defensivos foi demonstrado que a projeção, a agressão passiva, a atuação, o deslocamento, a cisão e a somatização podem estar relacionados a uma maior chance para o desenvolvimento de transtorno de estresse agudo em vítimas de trauma físico. Nesta amostra, os pacientes que desenvolveram transtorno de estresse agudo utilizaram mecanismos de defesas mais primitivos quando comparados aos indivíduos que não desenvolveram TEA. Além disso, são pessoas mais instáveis emocionalmente, apresentando um padrão de comportamento negativo em relação aos eventos cotidianos. / The Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) covers all the symptoms present in individuals before exposure to a traumatic event. The way individuals face the events of life is related to several factors such as personality characteristics and defensive style, both with an important influence in the post traumatic moment. The purpose of this research is to investigate the personality characteristics and defensive style in patients who have suffered physical trauma and developed ASD. The delimitation used was a controlled cross-sectional study. A convenience sample was used, consisting of 18 patients with ASD and 42 healthy who have suffered physical trauma and required admission to a referral hospital in trauma in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The instruments used were a structured questionnaire, clinical interview, questionnaire (NSE), Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ), Factorial Personality Battery (BFP) and The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). Results: The two groups presented a homogeneous distribution in relation to clinical and demographic variables. Individuals with ASD had a high average in Neuroticism factor of Personality Factor Battery and the vulnerability of sub-facets, emotional instability and depression. In relation to the defensive mechanisms it has been shown that the projection, passive aggression, acting, displacement, division and somatization may be related to a greater chance for the development of acute stress disorder in physical trauma. In this sample, patients who developed acute stress disorder used more primitive defense mechanisms when compared to the patients without acute stress disorder. Besides that, they are more emotionally unstable people, having a negative pattern of behavior in relation to the daily events.

This is a quality improvement project that focuses on implementing screening for acute stress disorder using the Acute Stress Disorder Structured Interview–DSM-IV tool in a Trauma Intensive Care Unit (ICU) at a Level 2 Trauma Center in Nashville, TN. Currently, at this hospital there is not a screening process implemented for these patients. Every trauma patient meets the criteria for acute stress disorder. Starting the process early aims for patients to be properly educated about their trauma and gets them the resources they need to heal mentally from the trauma. During the 6-week implementation period of this project, the trauma performance investigator (TPI) team screens patients for acute stress disorder. The team records how many patients screened, how many patients were available to screen, if they screened positive with a 9 or greater score, if they received a “telepysch” visit, and if a referral card for mental health visit after discharge was given. From this information, it will be determined how to continue to improve the implementation process. Information gathered data by the TPI will be recorded in Excel spreadsheets. The ASD screening tool scores will be used to compare the mechanism of injury to the score to determine if a correlation exists. Some patients that do not screen positive still want a referral card due to the education provided during the screening process. This shows the continued need for patient screening and education about acute stress disorder for this patient population.

Cette thèse a pour visée principale de faire avancer les connaissances de la littérature concernant les différences hommes-femmes dans le trouble de stress aigu (TSA) et le trouble de stress post-traumatique (TSPT), chez une population de victimes d’actes criminels graves (VAC). L’étude comprend deux objectifs principaux. Tout d’abord, l’évaluation de la présence et de l’intensité de réactions péri-traumatiques, soit la dissociation et la détresse. Ensuite, nous avons étudié si ces facteurs étaient associés à la survenue d’un TSA, chez les VAC et s’ils prédisaient différemment le TSA en fonction du genre. Dans le cadre d’un deuxième article et comme objectif secondaire de la thèse, l’impact des réactions péri-traumatiques a aussi été vérifié, mais cette fois sur le développement subséquent d’un TSPT. Également pour cet objectif, nous nous sommes concentrés sur le rôle du genre dans la prédiction de la relation. Des entrevues d’évaluation clinique ont été effectuées auprès de 214 victimes (125 femmes). Plus précisément, le TSA a été évalué, dans le cadre de l’article 1 à l’aide de l’Acute Stress Disorder Interview (ASDI), puis le TSPT à l’aide de l’entrevue semi-structurée du SCID pour une mesure diagnostique catégorielle et avec l’échelle modifiée des symptômes traumatiques (ÉMST), dans l’article 2. Cette échelle produit un score en continu de sévérité et de fréquence des symptômes. Les variables péri-traumatiques ont été évaluées à l’aide de questionnaires auto-rapportés, soit le Questionnaire des expériences dissociatives péri-traumatiques et l’Inventaire de détresse péri-traumatique. Les résultats du premier article démontrent que les femmes vivraient globalement plus de détresse péri-traumatique que les hommes, alors qu’il n’y aurait pas de différence de genre pour les expériences dissociatives. Ces réactions péri-traumatiques seraient toutes deux des prédicteurs d’un TSA tant chez les hommes que les femmes. Des différences de genre seraient présentes dans l’association de la détresse et du TSA lorsque des évènements potentiellement traumatiques passés étaient considérés. Pour les hommes, une présence élevée de détresse péri-traumatique et plusieurs antécédents de potentiels évènements traumatiques les rendraient plus vulnérables au développement d’un TSA. Chez les femmes, de potentiels traumas antérieurs augmenteraient le risque de présenter des symptômes du TSA seulement lorsqu’un niveau élevé de détresse péri-traumatique était présent lors du crime. Le deuxième article de la thèse démontre à nouveau que les réactions péri-traumatiques sont des facteurs de risque, mais cette fois pour le développement d’un TSPT. Cependant, aucune différence de genre n’a été observée concernant la capacité prédictive de ces variables. En effet, quelques mois après l’événement, la dissociation et la détresse péri-traumatiques demeurent des variables d’intérêt à considérer pour prévenir la survenue d’un TSPT, mais ce tant pour les victimes hommes que femmes. Cette deuxième étude a également confirmé l’importance du trouble de stress aigu comme facteur de risque au développement d’un TSPT chez une population de victimes d’actes criminels violents. Ces résultats, les limites de l’étude, des pistes de recherche futures, ainsi que les implications cliniques pour le traitement du TSA et du TSPT seront discutés de manière détaillée dans cette thèse doctorale. / This thesis aimed to contribute to the acute stress disorder (ASD) and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) literature in terms of gender differences among crime victims. Precisely, we were interested in the intensity and presence of peritraumatic reactions namely, dissociation and distress, among men and women victims of violent crimes. Two objectives were pursued. First, we evaluated whether peritraumatic dissociation and distress were significant risk factors for ASD development and if these acute stress reactions’ predictive capacity, differed according to gender. A second objective was to investigate if peritraumatic dissociation and distress significantly predicted PTSD development according to gender. Globally, in this research project, we were interested in determining the impact of gender in the prediction of the above-mentioned relationship . Semi-structured interviews; the Acute Stress Disorder Interview (ASDI) in the first article and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) in the second article were conducted with 214 victims (125 women, Mage=39.6yrs) to assess ASD and PTSD respectively. Data on peritraumatic variables were collected through self-report questionnaires, the Peritraumatic Dissociative Experience Questionnaire and the Peritraumatic Distress Inventory. Peritraumatic dissociation and distress were both significant risk factors for ASD in men and women. Women presented higher peritraumatic distress levels compared to men victims. Gender differences were revealed through past potential traumatic experiences, where they have a cumulative impact on ASD risk development for men, but having few past potential traumas could be a protective factor for women. In the second article, findings reveal that acute stress variables were both significantly related to more PTSD symptoms, although no gender differences were identified. An acute stress disorder diagnosis was also confirmed as an important predictor of PTSD in victims of violent crimes. These results, study limitations, directions for future research as well as clinical implications for ASD and PTSD treatment will be discussed.

Violent cnme is among the most prominent distinguishing characteristics of South African society, it has a severely traumatising effect on the populations concerned. Based on research :findings and existing literature, this study explores traumatic effects of violent crime on the most intimate associate of the victim (the partner). Accordingly, this study deals with the much-neglected topic of secondary trauma, by focusing on the following aspects of or conditions associated with violent crime and the secondary victim: cognitive, emotional and relational effects the experience of trauma, loss, vulnerability, depression and acute stress. It reveals that, depending on the severity of the incident, its consequences for the partner of the victim may range from post-traumatic stress to acute stress or secondary traumatic stress. From the similar results returned for primary and secondary victims, it is apparent that in the future, both victim and supporter should have their needs addressed with equal emphasis. / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (Specialisation in Guidance and Councelling)

Violent cnme is among the most prominent distinguishing characteristics of South African society, it has a severely traumatising effect on the populations concerned. Based on research :findings and existing literature, this study explores traumatic effects of violent crime on the most intimate associate of the victim (the partner). Accordingly, this study deals with the much-neglected topic of secondary trauma, by focusing on the following aspects of or conditions associated with violent crime and the secondary victim: cognitive, emotional and relational effects the experience of trauma, loss, vulnerability, depression and acute stress. It reveals that, depending on the severity of the incident, its consequences for the partner of the victim may range from post-traumatic stress to acute stress or secondary traumatic stress. From the similar results returned for primary and secondary victims, it is apparent that in the future, both victim and supporter should have their needs addressed with equal emphasis. / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (Specialisation in Guidance and Councelling)

Text in English / Disasters are global phenomena, often occurring without warning and with physical and psychological consequences among those affected. In May 2008, refugee and migrants living in South Africa were exposed to xenophobic violence, which may be described as a human caused disaster using the Shultz, Espinel et al. (2008) definition of disaster. Refugee and migrant women were particularly vulnerable during this time due to heightened risk for exposure to violence and pathology. During 2014, a mixed methods convergent study was conducted in Johannesburg to determine the presence of acute stress disorder symptoms (ASD), posttraumatic growth (PTG) and experiences of xenophobic violence among refugee and migrant women. One hundred and three refugee and migrant women completed a selfadministered questionnaire, while semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with a sub-set of 22 women.The quantitative results showed a positive, linear association between moderate ASD-total symptoms, as assessed by the Stanford Acute Stress Reaction Questionnaire (SASRQ) (Cardeña, Classen, Koopman, & Spiegel, 2014) and moderate posttraumatic growth-total, assessed by the posttraumatic growth inventory (PTGI) (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). All ASD symptom subscales were predictors of posttraumatic growth. The qualitative results from both the SASRQ open-ended responses and semi-structured responses showed that refugee and migrant women were adversely affected by the xenophobic violence, with a prevailing fear that the xenophobic violence would re-occur. There was convergence in the quantitative findings and the qualitative findings for the pathological and adaptive outcomes. Policymakers must address xenophobic violence by working towards prevention of this type of violence. In instances where policies fail to address or prevent xenophobic violence, disaster programmes should consider xenophobic violence in disaster planning. Further to this, mental health intervention programmes should not only focus on alleviating ASD symptoms but also emphasise enhancing PTG. / Psychology / M.A. (SS (Psychology))