The law of maritime liens has been a subject of great uncertainty for a long period of time and there has not been any unanimity in terms of certain aspect of this concept. Domestic law vary with regards to the recognition and enforcement of maritime liens. In an attempt to settle some of the uncertain aspects of maritime liens, three international conventions have been adopted to set out a universal list of maritime liens as well as to make uniform the mode of enforcing those maritime liens. The first attempt to achieve uniformity in the law of maritime liens was the International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to Maritime Liens and Mortgages 1926. However this convention did not receive acceptance in most jurisdictions. In 1967, a similar convention was formulated but like its predecessor, it was also not a success. The latest Convention was formulated in 1993 but despite the inclusion of seemingly attractive provisions in terms of ranking and classification of maritime claims, it also failed to get the required accessions and ratifications. This persistence by the international community in trying to regulate maritime liens serves as proof to show that admiralty law is faced with many challenges and inexplicable principles when it comes to maritime liens. This dissertation will grapple with what some may call a very old and distinct aspect of maritime liens, that is, its enforcement against buyers for value without notice. This aspect may very well be common with other types of liens but taking into consideration some of the reasoning behind its existence, perhaps the time has come to look into this issue. / Thesis (LL.M.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

This study consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 is a study of the motives and intent of Congress in creating a navy. Chapters 2 and 3 examine the operations conducted by the Marine Committee, Chapter 2 being devoted to its early operations and Chapter 3 to its later operations. Chapters 4 and 5 examine, in turn, the work of the Board of Admiralty and the Agency of Marine.

The associated ship and the jurisdiction to arrest such a ship created in terms of the Admiralty Jurisdiction Regulation Act 105 of 1983 is a unique legal institution in the world of maritime law and jurisdiction. The sister ship arrest envisaged by the Arrest Convention, 1952 is encompassed by the associated ship but the concept of an associated ship goes considerably further than the sister ship in going behind the separate corporate personality of ship-owning companies to their controlling interests and, on the basis of common control, providing that ships are associated. This status subjects them to arrest both in order to obtain security for court proceedings or arbitration, usually elsewhere than in South Africa, and arrest in actions in rem against the associated ship. This is in respect of claims arising in respect of other vessels in separate ownership. Although tentative consideration was given to a similar innovation when the Australian Law Commission undertook a review of admiralty law in Australia their legislation is confined to a surrogate ship arrest substantially along the lines of the sister ship arrest of the Arrest Convention. A proposal to introduce a similar institution by way of the revision of the Arrest Convention has not yet resulted in anything similar being introduced elsewhere. In South African maritime practice the associated ship jurisdiction has proved to be an important innovation, especially in conjunction with the power to arrest a ship for the purpose of obtaining security for proceedings in a foreign court or arbitration tribunal, and a substantial amount of maritime work involves associated ships. As an institution it has not hitherto been subjected to close scrutiny and the overall purpose of this work is to do that. It takes as a starting point the revision of South African admiralty procedure and jurisdiction leading to the enactment of the Admiralty Jurisdiction Regulation Act and the introduction of the associated ship. This task has been undertaken against the background of the general development of maritime law, the attachment ad fundandam et confirmandam jurisdictionem under the Roman Dutch common law of South Africa and the action in rem available in South Africa under the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890. The study reveals the common roots of these institutions in the Roman Law and the practice in maritime courts around Europe from the Middle Ages onwards and forms a part of the foundation for the proposition in the final analysis that South Africa has created an institution that is distinct from the English action in rem and having its own particular features derived from both its English and Roman Dutch forebears. The central analysis explores from a critical standpoint the justifications advanced at the time for the introduction of the associated ship jurisdiction and finds these wanting notwithstanding that they have tended to linger in statements in the judgments of the courts. Instead a policy-based justification is advanced that it is submitted provides a proper justification for the associated ship jurisdiction in the South African context. Being based upon policy considerations it is not suggested that this justification is universally applicable or demands the same response from all nations, as each will be influenced by different factors depending on the nature of the maritime interests of the country considering such an institution. This is likely to hamper attempts to obtain international agreement on a similar jurisdiction to arrest vessels going beyond the provisions of the Arrest Convention. In the light of the suggested justification of the associated ship jurisdiction the Act itself is analysed and various difficulties of interpretation are addressed. These include a critical analysis of certain controversial decisions and a consideration of the constitutional implications of the associated ship. Finally the different threads are brought together in an analysis of the nature and consequences of the arrest of an associated ship and the action in rem against the associated ship. The fact that the jurisdiction has been harnessed to two distinct purposes having entirely different features is highlighted. Although maritime law always has a significant international dimension the fact that the associated ship is a uniquely South African institution means that the analysis is largely driven by the underlying principles of South African law and principles. The view is taken that the statute is a South African statute governing matters of the jurisdiction of South African courts and as such falls to be construed in the light of South African legal principles. The too ready resort on questions of interpretation (as opposed to substantive law where it is mandated as being the / Thesis (LL. D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

No abstract available. / Thesis (LL.M.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1986.

published_or_final_version / Architecture / Master / Master of Architecture

Esgoto e hidrocarbonetos provenientes de atividades humanas são as principais fontes de poluição para o meio ambiente marinho antártico. Esteróis e hidrocarbonetos como n-alcanos, policíclicos aromáticos (PAHs) e alquilbenzenos lineares (LABs) foram investigados em sedimentos superficiais coletados na Baía do Almirantado, Antártica durante o verão de 1997/1998 e 1999/2000. Estes compostos são citados como traçadores de dejetos humanos e introdução de óleos ao longo de áreas costeiras de todo o mundo. As técnicas analíticas utilizadas foram a cromatografia a gás com detector de ionização de chama (GC-FID) e espectrômetro de massa (GC-MS). Análises de esteróis indicaram que o esgoto atinge até 700 metros desde a saída de efluentes, mas somente o ponto de descarga pode ser considerado poluído. Dados de LABs concordaram com os resultados obtidos para os esteróis indicando que dejetos humanos chegam até 1 Km desde a estação brasileira e que esteróis encontrados em pontos distantes são provenientes de fontes naturais. Os níveis obtidos para n-alcanos e PAHs foram similares àqueles obtidos em outros estudos envolvendo regiões antárticas. Contribuições biogênicas e pequenas introduções antropogênicas são as fontes dos n-alcanos detectados. PAHs encontrados em pontos distantes são associados como pequena contribuição de óleos enquanto que amostras coletadas na saída de esgoto e até 50 metros apresentam PAHs de origem pirolítica ou de esgotos. Este estudo concluiu que apenas a saída de efluentes pode ser considerada ponto altamente poluído e verificou a presença de uma substancial diminuição do aporte de esgoto com o aumento da distância desde a fonte. / Sewage and oil contribution are the main sources of pollution from the scientific stations to the antarctic marine environment. Sterols and hydrocarbons such as n-alkanes, polyciclic aromatics (PAHs) and linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) were investigated on surface sediments from Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica, collected during austral summer of 1997/1998 and 1999/2000 It has been previously used as a tracer from human waste and oil inputs along the coastal areas around the world. The analytical techniques used were gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) or attached with a mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Analyses of sterols showed that sewage moves until 700 meters since sewer outfall, but only the discharge point can be considered polluted. Data from LABs agreed with sterols results indicating that human wastes arrive until 1 Km from brazilian station and sterols found in remote areas were from natural contributions. N-alkanes and PAHs showed the same levels than previous studies from pristine areas in antarctic continent. Biogenic and little antropogenic sources are the origins from n-alkanes. PAHs found in distant points are associated with small oil contribution while samples collected in sewer outfall and until 50 meters far presented PAHs from combustion process and sewage. This study concluded that only the sewage discharge point is very polluted however there is a substantial sewage input decrease with the increase of distance from outfall.

A Baía do Almirantado (Ilha Rei George, Antártica) possui diversas pequenas enseadas de águas rasas, que sustentam uma abundante fauna bentônica. O regime de marés e de ventos é responsável pelo hidrodinamismo na baía e pela interação com as águas do Estreito de Bransfield. Portanto, trata-se de uma área que pode apresentar uma elevada abundância de larvas de invertebrados marinhos. A distribuição espaço-temporal de larvas pelágicas em águas rasas costeiras da Baía do Almirantado foi estudada entre outubro de 2002 e maio de 2003, e outubro de 2003 e agosto de 2004 em 12 estações rasas (0 a 15 m, ou até 30 m). Também foram amostradas, sazonalmente, quatro estações de maior profundidade, entre 0 a 30 m e 30 a 130 m da coluna de água, entre outubro de 2003 e abril de 2004. Amostras de plâncton foram coletadas com rede cônica de plâncton com malha de 150 µm nas três enseadas da baía (Martel, Mackellar e Ezcurra) e na entrada do seu canal principal. Larvas de diferentes grupos ocorreram em todo o período de estudo. No primeiro ano, a abundância total foi maior que no segundo e, em especial, no verão. As larvas véliger de Gastropoda foram mais abundantes, representando 84% do total do meroplâncton, no primeiro ano de amostragem. No ano seguinte, larvas trocófora foram predominantes (31% do total), seguidas de Gastropoda e Nemertea. Os resultados mostraram uma evidente variação interanual da densidade e da composição do meroplâncton, mas sem um padrão nítido de sazonalidade para determinados grupos. O congelamento da baía no inverno do primeiro ano de amostragem (2002) pode ter afetado a reprodução dos invertebrados bentônicos e a produção de larvas. Quanto à distribuição batimétrica, a abundância média do meroplâncton total foi maior na camada profunda do que na de superfície, na primavera-verão, mas espacialmente a densidade foi semelhante entre as áreas nas distintas camadas. A variabilidade na abundância e composição larval pode estar relacionada à hidrografia e a padrões reprodutivos das espécies bentônicas com desenvolvimento indireto, cujos ciclos reprodutivos são afetados por características ambientais. Em termos gerais, o meroplâncton coletado na Baía do Almirantado foi qualitativamente similar (quanto aos grupos de larvas) ao descrito para outras partes da Antártica. / Admiralty Bay (King George Island, Antarctica) has many small inlets of shallow waters, which supports an abundant benthic fauna. Tidal and wind regime are responsible for the hydrodynamics in the bay and for the interaction with the waters of the Bransfield Strait. Therefore, it is an area that can present a high abundance of marine invertebrate larvae. Spatio-temporal distribution of pelagic larvae in shallow coastal waters of Admiralty Bay was studied between October of 2002 and May of 2003, and October of 2003 and August of 2004 in twelve shallow stations (0 to 15 m, or up to 30 m). Four deeper stations were also seasonally sampled (0 to 30 m and 30 to 130 m of water column) between October of 2003 and April of 2004. Plankton samples were collected with a conical net, with mesh size of 150 µm, in the three inlets of the bay (Martel, Mackellar and Ezcurra) and in the entrance of its main channel. Larvae of different groups occurred in the whole studied period. In the first year, the total abundance was higher than in the second and, especially, in the summer. The veliger larvae of Gastropoda were more abundant, representing 84% of the total meroplankton in the first year of sampling. In the following year, trochophore larvae were predominant (31% of the total), followed by Gastropoda and Nemertea. The results showed an evident interannual composition and density variation of meroplankton, but without a clear pattern of seasonality for certain groups. The freezing of the bay in the winter of the first year could have influenced the benthic invertebrate\'s reproduction and larvae production. Regarding to the bathymetric distribution, the mean abundance of the total meroplankton was higher in the deeper layer than in the surface in spring-summer, however, spatially the density was similar among the areas in the different layers. The variability in the larval composition and abundance may be related to the local hydrography and specific reproductive pattern of the benthic species with indirect development, whose reproductive cycles are affected by environmental characteristics. In general terms, the meroplankton collected in Admiralty Bay was qualitatively similar (in view of the larval groups) to the described for other parts of Antarctica.

A Baía do Almirantado (Ilha Rei George, Antártica) possui diversas pequenas enseadas de águas rasas, que sustentam uma abundante fauna bentônica. O regime de marés e de ventos é responsável pelo hidrodinamismo na baía e pela interação com as águas do Estreito de Bransfield. Portanto, trata-se de uma área que pode apresentar uma elevada abundância de larvas de invertebrados marinhos. A distribuição espaço-temporal de larvas pelágicas em águas rasas costeiras da Baía do Almirantado foi estudada entre outubro de 2002 e maio de 2003, e outubro de 2003 e agosto de 2004 em 12 estações rasas (0 a 15 m, ou até 30 m). Também foram amostradas, sazonalmente, quatro estações de maior profundidade, entre 0 a 30 m e 30 a 130 m da coluna de água, entre outubro de 2003 e abril de 2004. Amostras de plâncton foram coletadas com rede cônica de plâncton com malha de 150 µm nas três enseadas da baía (Martel, Mackellar e Ezcurra) e na entrada do seu canal principal. Larvas de diferentes grupos ocorreram em todo o período de estudo. No primeiro ano, a abundância total foi maior que no segundo e, em especial, no verão. As larvas véliger de Gastropoda foram mais abundantes, representando 84% do total do meroplâncton, no primeiro ano de amostragem. No ano seguinte, larvas trocófora foram predominantes (31% do total), seguidas de Gastropoda e Nemertea. Os resultados mostraram uma evidente variação interanual da densidade e da composição do meroplâncton, mas sem um padrão nítido de sazonalidade para determinados grupos. O congelamento da baía no inverno do primeiro ano de amostragem (2002) pode ter afetado a reprodução dos invertebrados bentônicos e a produção de larvas. Quanto à distribuição batimétrica, a abundância média do meroplâncton total foi maior na camada profunda do que na de superfície, na primavera-verão, mas espacialmente a densidade foi semelhante entre as áreas nas distintas camadas. A variabilidade na abundância e composição larval pode estar relacionada à hidrografia e a padrões reprodutivos das espécies bentônicas com desenvolvimento indireto, cujos ciclos reprodutivos são afetados por características ambientais. Em termos gerais, o meroplâncton coletado na Baía do Almirantado foi qualitativamente similar (quanto aos grupos de larvas) ao descrito para outras partes da Antártica. / Admiralty Bay (King George Island, Antarctica) has many small inlets of shallow waters, which supports an abundant benthic fauna. Tidal and wind regime are responsible for the hydrodynamics in the bay and for the interaction with the waters of the Bransfield Strait. Therefore, it is an area that can present a high abundance of marine invertebrate larvae. Spatio-temporal distribution of pelagic larvae in shallow coastal waters of Admiralty Bay was studied between October of 2002 and May of 2003, and October of 2003 and August of 2004 in twelve shallow stations (0 to 15 m, or up to 30 m). Four deeper stations were also seasonally sampled (0 to 30 m and 30 to 130 m of water column) between October of 2003 and April of 2004. Plankton samples were collected with a conical net, with mesh size of 150 µm, in the three inlets of the bay (Martel, Mackellar and Ezcurra) and in the entrance of its main channel. Larvae of different groups occurred in the whole studied period. In the first year, the total abundance was higher than in the second and, especially, in the summer. The veliger larvae of Gastropoda were more abundant, representing 84% of the total meroplankton in the first year of sampling. In the following year, trochophore larvae were predominant (31% of the total), followed by Gastropoda and Nemertea. The results showed an evident interannual composition and density variation of meroplankton, but without a clear pattern of seasonality for certain groups. The freezing of the bay in the winter of the first year could have influenced the benthic invertebrate\'s reproduction and larvae production. Regarding to the bathymetric distribution, the mean abundance of the total meroplankton was higher in the deeper layer than in the surface in spring-summer, however, spatially the density was similar among the areas in the different layers. The variability in the larval composition and abundance may be related to the local hydrography and specific reproductive pattern of the benthic species with indirect development, whose reproductive cycles are affected by environmental characteristics. In general terms, the meroplankton collected in Admiralty Bay was qualitatively similar (in view of the larval groups) to the described for other parts of Antarctica.

La piraterie est un phénomène international depuis l'Antiquité. Sa répression a fait l'objet de différentes mesures de la part des États. Mais c'est du XVe au XVIIIe siècle que cette infraction a été reconnue comme crime international. La découverte du Nouveau Monde, le commerce et les profits qu'il a engendrés ont poussé les nations à prendre fait et cause contre « l'ennemi du genre humain ».Ainsi, les nations sont parvenues à mettre en place une définition commune puis à mettre en œuvre des instruments juridiques parachevant la compétence universelle. Ainsi définie, cette dernière permet à n'importe quel État de poursuivre et d'arrêter les pirates sans considération de naturalité et les autorise à les ramener dans leur pays pour qu'ils soient jugés selon leur droit interne. Cette répression particulière tient aux différents éléments constitutifs de l'infraction ainsi qu'au besoin d'efficacité de la répression.L'étude de la répression de la piraterie aux Caraïbes entre les XVe au XVIIIe siècles permet de comprendre la création de ce mécanisme particulier, d'en saisir les enjeux et les contours et d'appréhender plus facilement un mécanisme international encore exploité aujourd'hui. / Piracy is an international phenomenon since Antiquity. Its repression was the subject of different measures that states have taken. But, it's from the 15th century to the 18th century that its internationalization has been dedicated. The discovery of the New World, commerce and profits which it spawned have pushed nations to take up the case against “the enemy of the human kind”.Nations have thereby succeeded in establishing a common definition then to implement legal instruments allowing the application of the universal jurisdiction. Thus defined, this last allows any State to pursue and arrest pirates without consideration of naturality and to bring them in his country to been prosecuted according his internal law. This particular repression considers of his various components of the infraction as well as the need for an effective repression.Studying the repression of piracy in Caribbean between the 15th and the 18th centuries allows to get a better understanding of the creation of the particular mechanism of universal jurisdiction, to grasp its stakes and contours and to apprehend more easily an international mechanism still exploited today.

Esgoto e hidrocarbonetos provenientes de atividades humanas são as principais fontes de poluição para o meio ambiente marinho antártico. Esteróis e hidrocarbonetos como n-alcanos, policíclicos aromáticos (PAHs) e alquilbenzenos lineares (LABs) foram investigados em sedimentos superficiais coletados na Baía do Almirantado, Antártica durante o verão de 1997/1998 e 1999/2000. Estes compostos são citados como traçadores de dejetos humanos e introdução de óleos ao longo de áreas costeiras de todo o mundo. As técnicas analíticas utilizadas foram a cromatografia a gás com detector de ionização de chama (GC-FID) e espectrômetro de massa (GC-MS). Análises de esteróis indicaram que o esgoto atinge até 700 metros desde a saída de efluentes, mas somente o ponto de descarga pode ser considerado poluído. Dados de LABs concordaram com os resultados obtidos para os esteróis indicando que dejetos humanos chegam até 1 Km desde a estação brasileira e que esteróis encontrados em pontos distantes são provenientes de fontes naturais. Os níveis obtidos para n-alcanos e PAHs foram similares àqueles obtidos em outros estudos envolvendo regiões antárticas. Contribuições biogênicas e pequenas introduções antropogênicas são as fontes dos n-alcanos detectados. PAHs encontrados em pontos distantes são associados como pequena contribuição de óleos enquanto que amostras coletadas na saída de esgoto e até 50 metros apresentam PAHs de origem pirolítica ou de esgotos. Este estudo concluiu que apenas a saída de efluentes pode ser considerada ponto altamente poluído e verificou a presença de uma substancial diminuição do aporte de esgoto com o aumento da distância desde a fonte. / Sewage and oil contribution are the main sources of pollution from the scientific stations to the antarctic marine environment. Sterols and hydrocarbons such as n-alkanes, polyciclic aromatics (PAHs) and linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) were investigated on surface sediments from Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica, collected during austral summer of 1997/1998 and 1999/2000 It has been previously used as a tracer from human waste and oil inputs along the coastal areas around the world. The analytical techniques used were gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) or attached with a mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Analyses of sterols showed that sewage moves until 700 meters since sewer outfall, but only the discharge point can be considered polluted. Data from LABs agreed with sterols results indicating that human wastes arrive until 1 Km from brazilian station and sterols found in remote areas were from natural contributions. N-alkanes and PAHs showed the same levels than previous studies from pristine areas in antarctic continent. Biogenic and little antropogenic sources are the origins from n-alkanes. PAHs found in distant points are associated with small oil contribution while samples collected in sewer outfall and until 50 meters far presented PAHs from combustion process and sewage. This study concluded that only the sewage discharge point is very polluted however there is a substantial sewage input decrease with the increase of distance from outfall.