Zugl.: Freiburg (Breisgau), Univ., Diss., 2004

Thesis (PhD(Kerkreg)--University of Pretoria, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves [286]-303)

Diss. Univ. Freiburg i.Br., 2007/2008. / Originaltitel: Metatheoretische Überlegungen zum Transfer von Kategorien und Teiltheorien in die Interpretation interkultureller Texte, Titel der Diss. Originaltitel: Metatheoretische Überlegungen zum Transfer von Kategorien und Teiltheorien in die Interpretation interkultureller Texte.

The Aim of the Study - The study aims at describing the organizational functioning of certain South African Universities, mainly in terms of a) The processes of goal formulation, b) The structure of the universities, as well as the relationships between the main structural components, c) The nature of the communication and control processes in the Universities. By doing this the study could be of use in promoting a better understanding of the university as an organization. The Method of the Study - The first part of the study consist of an investigation of the literature pertaining to: a) The historical development of the university in the western world with particular emphasis on structural aspects. b) The theory of organizations. c) Contemporary studies of universities, mainly in the USA and Great Britain. The second part of the study deals with the results of an empirical investigation at nine South African universities. During visits to these universities interviews were held with sixty-eight individuals. In the final part of the study the results of both the literature study and the interviews were interpreted leading to a model of the organizational functioning of these universities. The Limitations of the Study - a) The study was limited in that only nine of the seventeen universities in South Africa were included in the investigation. This was done to ensure a sample of similar institutions for the study. b) The university can be studied from different perspectives. This study concentrates on the university as an organization, rather than on the perspectives of the university as an institution or as a community. c) The study limits itself to the main structural components of the university, thus avoiding personal or interpersonal aspects. d) The study concentrates on the managerial level of the functioning of the universities avoiding any detailed involvement in aspects of instruction and research. The Historical Development of the University - The mediaeval university was modelled after the mediaeval guilds, and the university thus became an organization controlled by its members, particularly the masters or teachers. The structure of the University of Paris, consisting of four nations and four faculties, was complex, but it is noteworthy that the elected officials of the University had little executive authority and were only elected for short periods at a time. This was not the case in Bologna where the students, and not the teachers, were in control of the university and where the elected officials had more executive authority. The development of colleges at particularly the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge introduced, for the first time, a structure whereby the daily lives of students were controlled by the university. This was probably the first of a series of additional functions that the university took upon itself since the middle ages. These additional functions, including in later centuries. various aspects of research, student services and community services, brought about a greater complexity in the university but it was nevertheless still handled within the basic structural arrangements of the mediaeval universities. The new German universities of the nineteenth century introduced research as an essential function of the university and also introduced active involvement by the government in university affairs. These developments also lead to a more prominent position for the professor as the head of the academic department. The first South African universities grew from colleges that were founded by public groups in the nineteenth century. The first of those colleges came to be governed by a College Council consisting of a majority of lay members, including government representatives. Purely academic matters were delegated to a Senate, consisting of the professors of the College. This structure was eventually adopted by all South African universities. The Theory of Organizations and its application on Universities - The work of the early management thinkers like Fayol, Weber and Taylor lead to the development of a school of thought about management witch came to be known as the classical school. This work has gained widespread acceptance, particularly because of the "management' principles" that it developed. The work of the behaviouralist school challenged the classical school's incomplete view of particularly the human aspects of organizations and thus lead to a more comprehensive view of organizations. During the sixties various systems based approaches to the •Study of organizations were developed. The sociotechnical model, based on the work of Homans and the Tavistock-group, and the decision-based approach of the Carnegie-school formed a basis from which the contingency theory of organizations evolved. The contingency theory provides a useful approach to the study of various organizations, particularly because it recognises the differences that exist between organizations and also because it allows the prediction of such differences. on the basis of the various contingencies faced by organizations. The work of Khandwalla (1977) is a useful compilation of the contingency theory and the propositions of Khandwalla are used to predict the characteristics of South African universities on the basis of a description of these organizations and their environments. Different sets of assumptions and predictions were developed for both the academic activities of the university and the non-academic support functions. These predictions correlated well with the results •of the empirical investigations. Lastly the applicability of the organizations type, the "professional beaurocracy" (Mintzberg, 1979), was also evaluated in relation to these universities. This model correlated well with some aspects but not with all. Models of the University - Beaurocratic and Collegial Models: The two basic models of the university are the beaurocratic and the collegial models. These• models are both incomplete descriptions of South African universities. The beaurocratic model ignores the important decision-making processes in universities and the collegial model ignores the authority of the different formal positions in the university structure. Other Models: Rice (1970) outlines a model of the university largely based on the concept of "process flow". This model reduces the university to a rather mechanical structure, neglecting the many complex interactions that form part of the functioning of universities. Verry and Davies (1976) use an econometric approach to describe the university. This is useful in analyzing aspects such as marginal costs but it is not useful for the purposes of this study Baldridge (1971) developed a "political" model of the university focusing on the processes of negotiating and the role of interest groups. This is a useful model but it places too much emphasis on crisis and conflict situations and too little on the normal functioning of universities. Richman and Farmer (1974) states that universities are mismanaged due to a lack of clear goals and they propose goal formulation as the basis for a proposed system of university management. Cyert (1975) agrees with this reasoning and outlines a process of evaluation based on this approach. Clark (1977) described the university as a federation of groups.-whilst the groups are often run on a collegial basis the coordination between the groups is more often handled on a beaurocratic basis. Cohen and March (1974) found that the university was an "organized anarchy", an organization in which departments and other segments of the organization were almost autonomous. Leadership was very weak and the organization as a whole aimless and purposeless. Two generalized Models: From the foregoing two generalized models of the university were postulated. The first is called the "traditional model" and this model stresses values such as individual autonomy and collegial values. The second model is called the "management model" and it stresses the necessity of clear goals, evaluation of achievement and a •strong role for the university management. The management model is of a normative nature whilst the traditional model is more often found in empirical studies of universities. The Goals of Universities - The nature of an organization is largely determined by the goals of that organization. The model of goal formulation described by Cyert and March (1963) states that goals are not determined only by the management of an organization but that it should rather. be seen as the result of a negotiation process involving numerous persons and groups both inside and outside the organization. Normative goals of the University - Various authors discussed the role of the university and amongst them Newman (1858) is notable for his view that universities should see their main task as the transmission, of culture and the general education of men rather than training for professions. Another view is that universities should see their task firstly as the quest and transmission of knowledge. This emphasis on research has gained widespread acceptance as another basic function of the university. The function of training people, particularly for professions in the community, has always been a part of the task of universities. Particularly from the point of view of the community this is an important task of the university. The task of community service as a secondary function of universities has also been firmly established. It is shown that these views of the university are not necessary complementary and that a clear formulation of aims based on all these various views is difficult to achieve. Commissions of Enquiry into universities in Britain, the USA and South Africa all formulated aims of the university in similar terms, indicating the wide and vague nature of university goals. The Empirical Investigation into goals - The questions asked during the interviews which formed part. of this study were analyzed and it was shown that goals in a university are formulated on different levels. Goals pertaining to the area of research of individual academics were established by individual academics. Goals pertaining to the nature and content of courses were established by academic departments with some control by faculties. The management of the university thus had little direct involvement in the formulation of goals pertaining to the basic university functions. Their role was mostly on the level of the allocation of resources. THE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES - The structure of the universities was reduced to the following seven components: 1. The Council and its committees, 2. The Senate and its committees. 3. The Principals and Vice-Principals. 4. The. Academics. 5. The Administrative Staff. 6. The Students. 7. The Environment of the University. Each of these components were analyzed in the literature and various aspects were also dealt with during the interviews, particularly by establishing the amount of agreement that the respondents had with a list of twenty statements concerning universities. The Council and its committees - It was found that whilst the council had great legal powers in running the university the style of the council, consisting of a majority of lay members, was likely to be reactive. The councils are often informed and guided by those members who are employed by the universities and lay members have limited influence. The Senate and its committees - Many respondents found university senates to be clumsy and ineffective bodies, mainly because they mostly consist of more than 100 members. Various mechanisms have been employed to streamline the functioning of senate but the overall results does not indicate a clear picture. The Principals and Vice-Principals - This component of the university is in a key position, not only because of its roll in both the council and senate but also because of its great influence in the allocation of resources within the University. The authority of the principals and vice-principals is however limited by the large amount of autonomy enjoyed by academics. The style of leadership that is appropriate to this component is that of persuasion and academic leadership rather than that of directing and controlling. The Academics - It is shown that academics can, for many purposes, be regarded as professionals but that there are also basic differences between the traditional professions and the academic’s role in a university. The academic department is the basic component in the university structure. Because it handles both the teaching and research functions without much outside, interference it can be regarded as the essential part of the university structure. The role •of the heads of departments in South African universities follows the British pattern in which the head is in a very strong position relative to the staff and students in his department. The Administrative Staff - The management of the administrative component of the university can either be handled by a committee structure consisting mainly of academics or the administration could be seen as a component that should be managed in a beaurocratic manner. These two styles are often found mixed in South African : universities and this causes tension and leads to frustration and inefficiency. The Students - Despite various efforts to involve students to a larger extent in the decision-making processes of the university the actual role played by students is limited to sporadic inputs in certain areas. The Environment of the University - South African Universities are influenced by a great number of institutions and individuals in the community. This influence is brought to bear on practically all the components of the university. Control Processes at Universities - It is shown that universities are traditionally reluctant to introduce effective control processes, including evaluation and corrective procedures, in respect of academic activities. The empirical study indicated that whilst most respondents were agreeable to the basic principles of control processes most of them also had serious reservations to the practical implications of the introduction of such measures. Organizations such as universities are also ill equipped to adopt themselves to changes in the demands made on them. Rather than making basic changes in the organizational structure new demands are normally met by establishing new organizational units to handle these new responsibilities. Conclusion. When evaluating the results of the study against the "traditional" and "management" models of the university it was found that both the theoretical predictions and the empirical investigation strongly supported the traditional model of the university as the applicable one to South African universities. The limited role of council, the large amount of freedom that academics enjoy in teaching and research, the subordinate role of administrative staff and the virtual absence of control processes all support this view. The very active and influential role of the principals and vice-principals in the management of the university and the importance of the environment to the university does however indicate that important aspects of the management model are also present in the universities. / Thesis (DBA)--PU vir CHO, 1982

Although the South African government plays an increasing role in tertiary education, its involvement has not received the attention that it deserves. The goals of tertiary education are multi-dimensional at the individual and societal levels, but the guiding paradigm was viewing it in relation to the manpower and socio-economic needs of the country. This meant analysing how the government attempted to deal with these needs, especially in certain key professions, such as engineering and teaching. The following hypotheses were tested: HYPOTHESIS 1 The prestige of the universities within the tertiary education system will persist for a longer period than the economic rewards of its graduates alone would justify. HYPOTHESIS 2 The expansion from elite to mass tertiary education will lead to greater dependence on government funding and increased need for control, co-ordination, and national standards. HYPOTHESIS 3 Governments will underinvest in technical education. HYPOTHESIS 4 In "bad" economic times tertiary education enrolments will decline. HYPOTHESIS 5 Continuing university prestige will cause the college of advanced technical education (CATE) and technikon enrolments and diplomas and certificates awarded to lag behind university degrees and diplomas. HYPOTHESIS 6 In "bad" economic times CATE and technikon technical enrolments will decline. HYPOTHESIS 7 Fears of surpluses of university graduates, especially in the arts, on the one hand and shortages of certain types of manpower on the other hand will lead to government efforts to redress the balance. HYPOTHESIS 8 There will be significant limitations on government efforts to create the desired numbers and types of skilled manpower, for interventionism of this sort will run counter to individual aspirations. Tertiary education for all of the population groups since 1945 was covered. Whilst there are some gaps in the available enrolment and expenditure data, they do not invalidate the conclusions. In a plural society with deep cleavages amongst the four main population groups and lesser intra group cleavages, separate education systems developed. All population groups value academic education very highly, especially the blacks. The biases in favour of an academic education are deep rooted and multi-faceted, going back to the colonial times. Within the South African context, there are also political, socio-economic, educational, and vocational factors reinforcing these biases. Ever since the creation of the Union in 1910 there has been an ongoing debate and controversy about the division of authority in education between the central government and the provincial governments. This has been especially the case with the colleges of education for the whites. It Will soon end, however, when the central government will take them over, as well as primary and secondary schools for the whites. Black education was taken over from provincial governments in 1954 up to the university level as part of the separate development policy. The same was done in the case of coloured education in 1967, and by 1970 with Indian education. In 1960 the University College of Fort Hare was taken over by the central government, and the University Colleges of Zululand and North were also created in 1959 for specific ethnic groups. Since then all of the non-white universities have experienced student unrest, especially the black ones. The government policy had the unintended consequence of contributing to their politicisation. The administrative structure is a complex one. There is one education ministry for each major population group, plus one dealing with general education matters. An elaborate statutory advisory system of boards, committees, and councils exists. There is, however, no body offering advice to the government on tertiary education as a whole for any of the population groups. The current expenditures for universities from 1953 until 1985 were under the Holloway formula, consisting of the basic subsidy, standard provision, cost of living allowance, free income, and capital expenditure. The new formula provides more emphasis upon outputs, with half of the funds being made available in June and the other half in December. Those in the natural sciences also receive somewhat more than those in the human sciences. University enrolments have grown much faster than the college of education, CATE, and technikon enrolments. Thus, the first part of Hypothesis 1 was substantiated. One of the consequences of •this phenomenal growth has been a significant failure rate, especially amongst first-year university students. This great expansion of tertiary education has led to greater dependence on government funding, as predicted by Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 3 also holds true, for there was underinvestment in CATE and technikon education for a long time as opposed to university education, although this is no longer true for the non-whites. Hypotheses 4 and 6 lacked significant supporting evidence and thus they were not confirmed. Tertiary education overall enrolments are not normally economically determined to any marked degree. Hypothesis 5 was upheld, because CATE and technikon enrolments and certificates and diplomas awarded as contrasted to university enrolments and degrees and diplomas awarded have lagged behind total awards and constitute a declining proportion. The last part of Hypothesis 1 is confirmed; technicians earn almost as much as teachers and sometimes even more than university graduates. Yet, they lack their prestige. Human capital theory, beginning in the 1960s, provided the theoretical justification for the great expansion of tertiary education. It maintained that investment in education will yield rich dividends to the individuals and to the economy in terms of higher growth. Since the early 1970s, however, it has come under increasing criticism from social scientists. Many maintained that there might be a declining positive correlation between education enrolments and growth rates and even negative correlations. Some even maintained that there are social limits to growth, including in education. Developing surpluses of university graduates abroad, continuing shortages of engineers and technicians, and the rising number of secondary school graduates, most of them with an academic education, led to government concern and the creation of the De Lange Commission. The government tried to redress the balance between university graduates in general and the shortages of technical and teaching personnel in particular. The De Lange Commission maintained that education must be linked to the manpower and economic development needs of the country. Earlier government commissions addressed the problems of technical and teaching personnel shortages. Many of their recommendations were implemented, but shortages of technical personnel have remained. Hypothesis 7 was thus confirmed. The government has tried to pursue the goals of manpower and economic development needs of the country, but as hypothesised (Hypothesis 8) it has run into difficulties because its goals run counter to individual aspirations. Many students pursue tertiary education for purely utilitarian or socio-economic reasons. There is also a minority which desires it for self-development or the advancement of knowledge regardless of the economic consequences. Moreover, the prestige of university education creates a strong social demand for it. Supply and demand projections for engineers and technicians indicate continuing shortages in the short- range at least. As far as the teachers are concerned, there will be enough white, coloured, and Indian ones, perhaps even some surpluses in the medium-range. In the case of the blacks, shortages will remain. The number of non-white university students by 1990 might equal white university students. The white population alone is no longer able to provide sufficient numbers of high level manpower. In the short-range the demand for university graduates looks good, but this does not mean that there will be no problems in the long-range. Unemployment of university graduates has been low, but underemployment, especially in the arts, has been far more significant. There will be increasing numbers of underemployed university graduates, with the potential for political discontent amongst highly educated and frustrated people, especially the blacks. Possible solutions to engineer and technician shortages include the granting of degrees by technikons, validation of technikon courses, and the awarding of degrees by an external authority. In the case of teachers, increasing their renumeration and the merging of the colleges of education with the university faculties of education would result in increasing their prestige and attracting more men to the profession. As far as unemployment and underemployment of university graduates are concerned, the solution lies in relating individual actions to societal needs. Incentives or disincentives of one sort or another appear to be necessary, such as differentiated fee structures and the limiting of enrolments in those disciplines which produce labour market surpluses. The government could also provide employment for unemployed university graduates and encourage the private sector to do the same. All of these solutions have disadvantages as well as advantages, but in the long run they have the potential of avoiding even more serious consequences. / Proefskrif (DPhil)--PU vir CHO, 1986

Tato práce pojednává o Maroku a jeho obchodním právu. Po charakteristice Maroka, jeho historie, státní moci a soudnictví se zaměřuje na právní úpravu obchodního práva, detailněji rozebírá obchodní společnosti. Jsou zde rozebrány i aktuální problémy jako korupce, dodržování autorských práv či postavení žen. Cílem práce je zjistit příčiny velkého rozdílu mezi relativně dobrou právní úpravou a její praktickou aplikací, která dosti zaostává.

A l’heure où le monde moderne est secoué par la crise environnementale, il se pose la question de son impact sur les populations d’Afrique noire qui conjuguent dans un même élan la relation à la nature et la loi de la société dans sa dimension intérieure et extérieure et dont les croyances tournent autour de l’environnement, qui édicte des normes de compréhension des valeurs et de la signification de l’existence humaine. Par ailleurs, le Négro-africain appréhende les choses dans leur globalité interactive sur tous les registres: environnement et société, monde visible et invisible, naturel et surnaturel, etc. L’homme est intégré à l’univers par la médiation du milieu naturel qui le porte, le nourrit, le soigne, l’habille et l’oriente. En effet, il existe dans la cosmovision négro-africaine, des profondeurs fondamentales qui rendent compte à l’Absolu des attitudes face à la vie, à la terre, à la nature, aux végétaux, aux minéraux, aux animaux et aux humains. L’environnement oriente toute sa vie. Le milieu naturel détermine les attitudes profondes, les croyances, les comportements et les pratiques sociales ; le mode vie et les systèmes de penser ainsi que les représentations mentales des individus et des groupes sociaux, qui fournissent, à leur tour, un théâtre à l’action, un idéal ou un archétype de ce que signifie la vie, laquelle s’articule autour de la nature et la société. Dans ce sens, la crise environnementale interpelle devait devenir partie de l’annonce voire de l’inculturation de la de la Bonne Nouvelle sur ce continent. / Die Folge der Umweltzerstörung für die Lebensdenkweise des Schwarzafrikaners. Ethische und théologische Ansätze

Die Bilder vom heutigen Indien faszinieren, aber mehr noch erschrecken sie. Der gnadenlose Kontrast, der mehr ist als „soziale Ungleichheit“, die grausame Armut, die trotz Wachstum in den vergangenen Jahren dramatisch angestiegen ist. 42 Prozent der Inder leben heute unter der Armutsgrenze. Das sind 500 Millionen Menschen! Dazu kommen die sich über das ganze Land ausbreitende, oft tödliche Gewalt, nicht nur, aber vor allem gegen „Indiens Töchter“, ein fortdauerndes archaisches Kastenwesen, ein immer stärker werdender Separatismus, der die nationale Einheit ernsthaft infrage stellt, bürgerkriegsartige Zustände in einigen Bundesstaaten und eine massive Zerstörung der Umwelt.

Individers tillit til det politiske systemet er viktig for myndighetenes evne til å styre effektivt. En stat som ikke har tillit fra sine innbyggere kan bli nødt til å ta i bruk virkemidler som vold, trusler og tvang for få sine innbyggere til å opptre som ønskelig. Slike virkemidler kan bli møtt med motstand, noe som vil minke effektiviteten, og kan i verste fall føre til kollaps av staten. Denne analysen har som hensikt å undersøke hva som genererer tillit til de politiske institusjonene i Afrika. Det afrikanske kontinentet er hjemsøkt av ustabilitet, væpnede konflikter, borgerkrig og etniske konflikter. En viktig oppgave verdenssamfunnet står ovenfor er dermed hvordan vi skal få Afrika ut av denne negative spiralen. Ved å anvende flernivåanalyse i 20 afrikanske land finner jeg at individenes subjektive oppfattelse av landets økonomiske situasjon, ulikhet mellom etniske grupper, generalisert sosial tillit samt korrupsjon har en innvirkning på individers grad av tillit. / Popular trust in the political institutions is vital for a regime’s ability to govern effectively. A regime that does not inhabit trust from its citizens will have to use other measures to obtain obedience and cooperation from their citizens – like coercion, use of force and threats. These measures may reduce the efficiency of the regime, and may also lead to a collapse of the state. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate what the sources of political trust are in Africa. The African continent is hunted by instability, armed conflicts, civil wars and ethnic conflicts. One of the tasks for the international society is therefore how to get African countries out of this negative spiral. Since political trust is linked to the stability of the regime, it is essential to investigate what the sources of trust are. By using multilevel modeling in twenty African countries, I find that individual evaluations of the country’s economic situation, horizontal inequalities, social trust and corruption all have an influence on political trust.

Der „schwarze Kontinent“ emanzipiert sich vom Westen, auch außenpolitisch. Afrikanische Lösungen für afrikanische Probleme – dies wird gefordert. Dabei spielt Südafrika, das jüngste Mitglied der aufstrebenden BRICS-Gruppe, eine Hauptrolle. Trotz schwacher Wirtschaft und geringer militärischer Kapazitäten zeigt das Land Selbstbewusstsein sowohl in der konfliktreichen Region als auch auf der globalen Bühne. Im neuen Heft prüfen südafrikanische Stimmen die neue Außenpolitik des „Koloss am Kap“ auf Anspruch und Wirklichkeit.