Irrigation water allocation is essential to the management of agricultural water use in irrigation districts. Many irrigation optimization models were proposed from previous studies to provide decision support for water managers. In order to capture the complex nonlinear relationships and meet different water demands, more advanced multi-objective nonlinear programming models were developed in the past decade. However, it is still a challenging task to address varies uncertainties associated with irrigation optimization. Fuzzy programming, interval programming, and chance-constrained programming can be used to quantify uncertainties in simplified formats, but none of them can represent complex uncertainty in a composite format. In this thesis, a cloud-based dual objective nonlinear programming (CDONP) model is developed by implementing a cloud modeling method in an irrigation model to address the uncertainties of reference evapotranspiration (ET0) and surface water availability (SWA). The cloud modeling method is used to generate 2,000 data samples from historical data. The results show that the generated samples are consistent with historical data. Optimized allocation schemes are provided, and the performance of the CDONP model are discussed. This is the first Canadian study that used the cloud modeling method in irrigation water allocation. This method provides a solution to quantify composite uncertainties based on limited data, which represents a unique contribution to irrigation water allocation modeling. This study provides valuable decision support for agriculture management to improve water use efficiency. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

The MANIMEA $ rm ( underline{MA}nurial underline{NI}trogen underline{M}anagement{:} underline{E}nvironmental underline{A}spects)$ model is a one-dimensional dynamic model that simultaneously simulates nitrogen transformations (volatilization, net mineralization-immobilization, and denitrification), nitrogen transport (runoff and leaching), plant uptake, and adsorption in homogeneous, unsaturated soils. The simulated system is divided into two components: the applied manure layer and the soil. The model describes the transformation processes occurring in both components separately. It is also capable of accounting for both micro and macroporous flows. In addition, the simulation can be done for time steps shorter than 1 day. / The model was developed to be interactive and user-friendly and was constructed on a modular basis using Microsoft FORTRAN PowerStation$ sp circler$ as a compiler. It can be run on an IBM$ sp circler$ or IBM compatible microcomputer with a minimum requirement of a 386 microprocessor with 4 MB RAM. This model was developed as a nitrogen management-oriented model. However, it can also be used to gain further understanding of nitrogen processes for research and teaching purposes. / The accuracy of the stimulation was enhanced by taking into account moisture and temperature variation and distribution in the soil. The SWACROP and the HEAT programs were integrated into the MANIMEA model to generate transient moisture and temperature profiles, respectively. The Numerical Method Of Lines (NMOL) technique, which implements finite difference method, was used to numerically solve the partial differential equations in the model. / Generally, the results generated by the MANIMEA model using the parameters from literature agreed with the results obtained by analytical solutions and from experiments. It was found that the model is highly sensitive to the volatilization and net mineralization rate constants $(K sb{v}$ and $K sb{m}).$ The study showed that the MANIMEA model can be implemented to evaluate nitrogen transformations, transport, and plant uptake for a wide range of climatic and soil conditions and organic type of wastes. Such a tool can contribute to the protection of our environment through a better management of organic nitrogen fertilizer and a better understanding of the nitrogen processes.

Agriculture has become increasingly dynamic, requiring great efficiency in the resource management process, so knowledge of all the technical and financial factors involved is of the utmost importance. The use of mobile technologies has grown exponentially, these devices have a reasonable capacity for storing and processing data, and their use to work with concepts of rural management is a great alternative to improve the management of agricultural activities. The objective of this work was to develop a mobile application called C7 Lavouras, with the function of assisting the rural producer and the professional of the technical assistance in the process of management of the agricultural activities, executed in a rural property. Being this, developed for the android platform, which is the most popular, avoiding an investment in other high cost equipments. Application routines were developed taking into account the concepts of agricultural management, encompassing all information management related to agricultural crops. The application performs the data entry, storage in a database on the device itself, transmits data via email or server, allows query using specific filters, and even allows the generation of reports. / A agricultura tem se tornado cada vez mais dinâmica, exigindo uma grande eficiência no processo de gestão dos recursos, por isso conhecimento de todos os fatores técnicos e financeiros envolvidos é de extrema importância. A utilização de tecnologias móveis vem crescendo exponencialmente, estes dispositivos possuem uma razoável capacidade de armazenamento e processamento de dados, e o seu aproveitamento para se trabalhar com conceitos de gestão rural é uma grande alternativa para se aperfeiçoar a gestão das atividades agrícolas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver um aplicativo móvel denominado C7 Lavouras, com a função de auxiliar o produtor rural e o profissional da assistência técnica no processo de gestão das atividades agrícolas, executadas em uma propriedade rural. Sendo este, desenvolvido para a plataforma android, que é a mais popular, evitando um investimento em outros equipamentos de custo elevado. As rotinas do aplicativo foram desenvolvidas levando em consideração os conceitos de gestão da agricultura, abrangendo todo gerenciamento de informações referentes às lavouras agrícolas. O aplicativo realiza a entrada de dados, armazenamento em um banco de dados no próprio dispositivo, transmite dados via e-mail ou servidor, permite consulta utilizando-se filtros específicos, e, inclusive permite a geração de relatórios.

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Water is the source of life. Leonardo da Vinci, constructor of the drainage system of a swamp area north of Rome, said that “water is the blood of the soil”. Without water there is not fertile soil and without any of them there is no harvest. Sustainable Agriculture Management is all about how to develop and improve the use of different resources to make agriculture more sustainable. This study is about how to apply this concept into the study area. The Balkhash Lake is among the biggest lakes on earth, but due to unreasonable water utilization, the lake is facing the same fate as the Aral Sea. The lake belongs to the Ili Balkhash Basin IBB that is shared by two countries; Kazakhstan and China. Most of the water (around 80%), that feed the lake, come with the Ili River that is born on the Chinese side. Most of the water is used for agriculture purposes. Now the Chinese Government want to increase the irrigated area and develop more projects that require more water. If this is done without any improvement in the agriculture management, the IBB is under threat. The irrigation systems in the study area are very precarious. The farmers are isolated with almost no possibility to participate in the development process. The government is not interested in any research in water issues and the information that can be found about water consumption and cultivated area are proven to be far from reality. A difficult situation facing the above mention problematic. The agriculture area can grow but the water management in the Upper Ili Basin needs to be reviewed and improved. Just by doing small changes like changing rice cultivation for a crop with a higher water productivity the amount of water that can be saved is considerable. Or by importing virtual water from a region with a higher water productivity. But first a general recognition from the Chinese side about water shortage is necessary. The Ili Balkhash Basin can be sustainable if it is treated as a whole. The boundaries of the system need to be set around the whole basin. A partial view of the basin can be dangerous and jeopardize the subsistence of the natural environment of the area. When the carrying capacity of the basin is measured, the only way to grow is under this threshold. In this case, by improving water productivity with better agriculture management.

Much public attention has been given lately to the concept of sustainability, a notion which is increasingly viewed as a desirable goal of viticulture development and environmental management. The emergence of the sustainability concept has seen a concomitant rise in the interest of its measurement. It has been suggested that through the analysis of regulatory and non-regulatory methods, the attainment of how sustainable freshwater use in vineyards can be assessed. Regulation has to date been the policy tool of choice in regards to environmental protection. While regulation is often necessary, non-regulatory approaches may, in some circumstances, serve as useful supplements to an effective regulatory regime. There are a number of stages to achieving the aim of this research. The first is designed at galvanising New Zealand‟s will to stride out down the sustainability road through the development of the sustainable vineyard concept. Investigations into regulatory freshwater policies were undertaken to assess the relative efficacy of such methods in guiding vineyards in sustainable freshwater use. The research then explored the elements of freshwater use as they relate to non-regulatory methods for achieving sustainable environmental outcomes. Qualitative research was undertaken through the instigation of an email questionnaire and semi-structured interviews to provide an understanding of freshwater use in vineyards within Marlborough. The research focuses on the discussion of the methodological considerations which are important in developing a working framework for assessing how vineyards achieve sustainable freshwater use. The ideal properties and characteristics of sustainability are identified and critically examined. An evaluation of the different types of regulatory and non-regulatory policies on freshwater management are considered. Both regulatory and non-regulatory methods were seen to be significant in developing an operational framework, as they are capable of representing the management of freshwater use and sustainability practices in vineyards. It is observed that the policy goal of both regulatory and non-regulatory organisations in achieving sustainable freshwater outcomes generally cannot be attained to the full satisfaction of all the dimensions of sustainability. Rather, sustainable freshwater use could be considered as a „road‟ and not a fixed destination. Along the way, trade-offs and balances have to be made. It is up to individual vineyard managers to weight the various alternatives, with the policy and decision makers providing information upon which rational choices can be based. This research demonstrates the efficacy of regulatory and non-regulatory methods in guiding sustainable environmental outcomes. It appears that the „ideals‟ of policies, as outlined in the literature and data collected, recommend an overall adaptive management approach if achieving sustainable freshwater use is the ultimate goal.

The performance of golf greens in terms of rootzone physical properties, sward characteristics and playing quality is highly dependent upon the original rootzone composition and subsequent management. Such performance also continuously changes with time under usage. A study to this performance was conducted from April 1998 to January 2003 at the research site of the New Zealand Sports Turf Institute. This thesis reports results of both the field measurements made of rootzone physical properties, sward characteristics and playing quality of five alternative golf green rootzones during the first five years after sowing, and of the simulation modeling of their performance predicted for the first 30 years after sowing. Rootzone treatments were partially amended sand rootzone, soil rootzone, pure sand rootzone, fully amended sand rootzone, and partially amended sand + zeolite rootzone. A split-plot design was superimposed on the rootzone treatments consisting of twice-yearly cultivation/aeration treatments (control, HydroJect, scarification and Verti-drain). Results showed that performance of golf greens could be objectively, quantitatively and comprehensively assessed and monitored over the long-term at the rootzone level by using an Integrated Rate Methodology (IRM) model through computing the Comprehensive Golf Green Performance Index (CGGPI). The performance of golf greens showed a gradual improvement during the first two years after sowing. It then deteriorated progressively over the remainder of the 30 years predicted for all rootzone and cultivation/aeration treatments. This general trend was reflected mainly by a gradual decrease with time in water infiltration rate, oxygen diffusion rate, air-filled porosity and deep rooting. Also, there was a gradual increase in green speed, surface hardness, root mass and organic matter content near the surface profiles. By the 14th and 27th year after sowing, the IRM model predicted that the CGGPI for all the three amended sand rootzones and the pure sand rootzone were below the minimum acceptable threshold. The key factor that caused the general deterioration in green performance of all the sand-based rootzones appeared to be excess accumulation of organic matter in the surface of the profiles. Whilst there were marked differences in the performance of golf greens between the rootzone types, it was only the conventional soil rootzone that consistently performed unacceptably. Quantitative benefits of upgrading from a soil-based to a sand-based rootzone were evident in terms of improved infiltration rate, increased oxygen diffusion rate and macroporosity, reduced organic matter accumulation near the surface, better root growth and distribution, more stable turfgrass sward, lower weed cover and less fluctuation with seasons in surface hardness. Among the four sand-based rootzones, the pure sand rootzone had the highest incidence of dry patch disorder, poorest turf visual quality, greatest changes over time in the relative balance of Festuca and Agrostis, and largest fluctuation with seasons in surface hardness. However, it contained the best root growth distribution. After the fifth year from sowing, the green performance of the pure sand rootzone remained significantly better than the three amended sand rootzones. There was negligible difference in the performance of golf greens between the three amended sand rootzones on all measured or predicted occasions. The supposed benefits of burying a zeolite-amended sand layer at 100-200 mm depth, ostensibly for encouraging deep rooting, were not apparent under the experimental conditions used, possibly because the experimental plots were never managed under nutrient or moisture stress conditions. Beneficial effects of twice-yearly cultivation/aeration treatments on rootzone physical properties, sward characteristics and playing quality were evident, although these effects were extremely short-lived. Verti-drain treatment with hollow tines tended to be most effective in controlling surface organic matter accumulation and the resultant rootzone physical deterioration. In contrast, the scarification treatment gave variable response, reducing root mass, hence organic matter accumulation, near the surface on the one hand, but on the other decreasing infiltration rate and turfgrass cover. HydroJect treatment, although tending to induce a higher incidence of disease and pest damage, appeared particularly effective in minimizing the occurrence of dry patch disorder on sand-based rootzones when used in conjunction with a proprietary wetting agent. None of the cultivation/aeration treatments could effectively halt the general deterioration with time in the performance of golf greens under the twice-yearly treatment frequency used. It was concluded that: (a) The performance of sand-based rootzones for golf greens will be limited in the long term by excess accumulation of organic matter near the surface of the profile; (b) Cultivation/aeration treatments will need to commence immediately after full turf establishment and should be carried out more than twice per year on golf greens under New Zealand conditions; (c) HydroJect treatment, when used in conjunction with wetting agent application, is an effective management tool for prevention of dry patch disorder on sand-based golf greens; while scarification should not be used in isolation of other physical cultivation; (d) Upgrading from a conventional soil rootzone to a high-grade, sand-based rootzone will greatly improve golf green performance; (e) The practice of constructing only the top 100 mm of the sand rootzone with organic-amended sand is an alternative method that can be used successfully for putting green construction instead of the fully amended, standard USGA-type profile; the pure sand rootzone system is also an appropriate alternative for rootzone construction of golf greens, provided the initial establishment can be managed successfully; (f) The integrated rate modeling approach is potentially an effective decision-making tool for rootzone upgrading, surface preparation planning, performance assessment and monitoring, professional consultancy, and seasonal management of golf greens.

The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) gave councils a mandate and an obligation to promote sustainability. Along with this it also introduced an expectation that the environment will be better managed than previously. Evidence shows that the environment is continuing to be degraded. This is especially evident in the coastal environment where in the early 2000s there has been unprecedented development pressure. The addition of the Local Government Act in 2002 (LGA) has strengthened councils’ sustainability mandate by stipulating a sustainable development approach and supporting processes and principles. Because the RMA and LGA have a similar sustainability directive there has been a push to utilise the compatible strengths that the LGA offers to enhance the outcomes achieved through RMA decisions, therefore, integrating and aligning the LGA and RMA. This research used case studies, including interviews, to examine how councils use their RMA and LGA mandates in coastal development decisions. The research found that currently there is little integration of the LGA’s requirements and sustainability direction in RMA coastal subdivision decisions. The case study analysis showed that using the principles and processes in the LGA and also a council’s policies, strategies, and plans other than RMA documents would provide up to date policy direction and contextual information that would be useful for RMA decisions and could provide a more sustainable outcome if used. The case studies identified a significant number of barriers to achieving sustainability through the RMA, including that much of the policy direction in RMA planning documents is not considered in deliberations. A number of these barriers are also likely to reduce attempts to integrate and align the LGA and RMA, unless they are addressed.

The pressure on the public agricultural extension organisation in Ghana to improve its responsiveness to meet the needs of farmers has increased since the globalisation of trade in the early 1990s. To improve agricultural productivity and the livelihood security of farm households, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in Ghana decentralised its extension service in 1997. Although this was a critical change in agricultural policy, the extension service has struggled to implement this policy effectively. Further improvement in the situation is hampered because there has been little research published in this area. To provide this understanding, a single-case study of a successful decentralised district level extension organisation in Ghana was used to identify the factors, processes and outcomes that contribute to its performance. The case organisation is an example of a district agricultural extension organisation that operates under a decentralisation system at the level of deconcentration, with a high farmer-to-extension agent ratio and limited and uncertain levels of Government funding. The results of the study emphasised the importance of the effects of both external and internal (or organisational) factors on the performance of the case organisation. The external factors included: (1) the political will to decentralise, (2) the level of decentralisation of other government departments, (3) the provision of a clear legal framework for decentralisation and (4) the existence of established institutions that are willing to support the decentralisation process. New external factors that were identified in this study were (1) the type and drivers of decentralisation, (2) stakeholders' willingness and commitment to support the decentralisation process and (3) the community characteristics in terms of land tenure arrangements and gender roles. The results confirmed the importance of the organisational factors prescribed in the literature: (1) stakeholder participation, (2) managerial and technical capacity, (3) operational funding and (4) accountability. However, the study also identified five other interrelated organisational factors that influenced the success of the case organisation that had not been previously reported in the literature. These included the needs to: (1) develop a needs-based extension programme, (2) expand the extension service focus and roles, (3) foster a cross-sector pluralistic extension approach (4) use needs-based groups for service delivery, and (5) extension staff attitudinal change. Multistakeholder (farmer and other organisations) participation was critical for the development of a needs-based extension programme. The case organisation had modified the traditional extension programme planning process to involve stakeholders at different levels of participation. Similarly, the case organisation involved stakeholders in its multilevel monitoring and evaluation processes. Stakeholder participation in planning and evaluation, although aimed ultimately at efficient and effective programme implementation and improvement, did enhance accountability. Because the case organisation had taken on a broader livelihood security focus to extension, the definition of farmer needs was extended to encompass on-farm and off-farm needs that have impact on the contribution agriculture makes to the livelihood security of farm households in the district. This broader livelihood security focus to extension required the case organisation to take on additional roles from those it traditionally held. In the study, a typology of such roles was developed and a role selection process used by the case organisation during its programme planning process was described. Similarly, because of this broader focus, the case organisation had to work both across sectors and with other extension providers from within the sector to meet the needs of farmers. Again, the multistakeholder programme planning process was central to fostering coordination and collaboration amongst the various extension providers in the district. Decentralisation has placed greater managerial responsibility on management staff of the case organisation. In addition, the livelihood security focus has required technical staff and attitudinal changes to develop and seek for a much broader range of skills and knowledge - meaning that the development of both managerial and technical capacity was important for the case organisation. Needs-based training, the development of a learning environment and the enhancement of staff motivation were critical for the development of staff capacity. As with other extension organisations in developing countries, the funding for the case organisation was limited and uncertain. To overcome these constraints, the case organisation had in place mechanisms to ensure its resources were used efficiently and that it could mobilise additional resources from outside the organisation. Resource efficiency was improved through an intensive monitoring system and the use of stable needs-based groups. Additional resources were mobilised by lobbying government and international donors for funds for projects that would meet the needs of farmers. Further resources were obtained through collaboration with other stakeholder organisations. Again, the multistakeholder planning process provided a platform for collaboration. Networking and special issue forums also provided mechanisms for enhancing collaboration within the district. Decentralisation was introduced into Ghana in 1997 with the aim of eventually developing a demand-driven extension system. Although viewed as successful, the case organisation has yet to achieve the level of farmer participation (i.e. self-mobilisation) that is required for a demand-driven extension system. Currently, after six years of decentralisation, the level of farmer participation can be classified as somewhere between consultation and collaboration. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that the transition from a top-down to a demand-driven extension system will take considerable time and resources.

This study was undertaken to research the principles and practices behind increased pasture productivity on Longslip Station, Omarama. A range of landscape - soil - climate - plant systems were identified, then analysed and the legume responses measured. By isolating cause and effect and appreciating the driving variables of each system, lessons learnt could be reliably and objectively transferred to the rest of the farm. Extrapolation to the balance of the property (15,150 ha) permitted immediate large-scale development and engendered confidence to lending institutions, Lands Department, catchment authorities and ourselves. Soil (land) cannot be well managed and conserved unless it is mapped reliably and its characteristics measured and interpreted by skilled observers (Cutler, 1977). Soil resource surveys, and their interpretation, are an essential ingredient of rational resource evaluation and planning. This thesis is a figurative and comparative survey and study of the soil catenary bodies, resident vegetation, legume establishment and pasture production characteristics of a 400 hectare catchment, in relation to, and as influenced by soil landscape unit, slope component, altitude, aspect and time. The inherent diversity in landform, soil properties and vegetation communities in a single catchment in the high country has not previously been fully studied or appreciated. This has lead to blanket recommendations for fertilizer, seed and management regimes both within and between properties and even regions. This study reports on the diversity of, yet predictable change in soil properties with slope position (upper, middle and lower) aspect and altitude in terms of both soil physical properties e.g. soil depth and water holding capacity and soil chemical properties such as pH, BS%, %P, %S, %N and %C. The composition of the resident vegetation and its differential response to oversowing and topdressing and subsequent change through time is reported and discussed. Finally an epilogue gives an insight into the problems and frustrations of farming practices in the high country from a motivation and personal perspective and political point of view that it is essential to come to terms with.