Ce travail a consisté à analyser et de simuler à l’aide du modèle INCA-Indoor la qualité de l’air intérieur, et de développer une nouvelle méthodologie pour étudier les contributions des différents processus aux concentrations de polluants. Cette nouvelle méthodologie se base sur un nouveau programme de sensibilité INCA-Indoor-D, permet d’identifier rapidement les paramètres les plus sensibles qui peuvent influencer la qualité de l’air intérieur. Le modèle INCA-Indoor a été validé expérimentalement en utilisant les données mesurées lors de la campagne MERMAID (2014-2015). L’application du programme de sensibilité INCA-Indoor-D est pour analyser des sensibilité des concentrations de OH par rapport aux divers paramètres. Une classification de l’importance de ces paramètres en fonction de la sensibilité a ainsi été effectuée. Ce travail de thèse offre une nouvelle analyse de la pollution de l’air ainsi que de nouvelles perspectives d’études possibles dans un bâtiment basse consommation. / This study consisted in the study of indoor air quality with INCA-Indoor model, and especially the development of a fast methodology to identify the most sensitive parameters influencing indoor air quality. The methodology is based on a sensitivity program INCA-Indoor-D, which was built to identify the most important parameters affecting pollutant concentrations. With measurement data from MERMAID (2014-2015), it is intended to continue to evaluate the INCA-Indoor model, which was used to analyze the indoor air quality of a low energy building. The first application of the sensitivity program INCA-Indoor-D is performed to develop a comprehensive sensitivity analysis of indoor [OH] with respect to diverse parameters. Sensitivity has been settled with a classification of the parameters. The results in this study provide useful information about roles of different processes controlling indoor air quality and the effects of different parameters on indoor pollutant concentrations.

Mold is a type of fungus present in nearly all environments. Mold thrives under several environmental parameters such as high humidity and an adequate food source. A professional, such as an industrial hygienist, can measure mold in indoor and outdoor environments. Industrial hygienists commonly use a cascade impactor with a culture plate to capture air within a sampling area. While collecting air samples, environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, and carbon dioxide are recorded. A laboratory then cultures and analyzes the samples, identifying the types and amounts of viable mold found in the sampling area. In this study, a data analysis method is used to interpret lab results and compare those results to the environmental parameters measured during collection. The study aims to show the relationship between the environmental parameters (temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide) and the types and amounts of mold that were measured in both indoor built environments and their surrounding outdoor areas. Among all 170 different sampling locations, the outdoor areas had higher counts and concentrations of mold. In addition, both indoor and outdoor areas saw Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Cladosporium as the most prevalent molds, with Cladosporium having the highest counts. Lower temperatures and humidity had a very small influence on mold growth and thus, yielded the lowest counts. Furthermore, the highest concentrations of mold were found within the same temperature and humidity ranges for both indoor and outdoor environments.

Indoor air quality is a growing concern in the world. People spend a considerable amount of time in indoor environments such as homes, workplaces, shopping malls, stores, and so on. Indoor sources like incense and candle burning, cooking contribute a significant amount of indoor air pollutants such as particulate matter, carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds. Exposure to these kinds of pollutants can result in adverse health effects. The purpose of this research is to determine the particulate matter and carbon monoxide emission factors (EFs) from incense stick burning. A test chamber with a rectangular exhaust duct, a fan to exhaust air with pollutants in it, and pollutant sensors were used to achieve the project goals. Several experiments were performed with different cases/scenarios to accurately estimate the EFs and several test runs were conducted for each case to test the repeatability of the results. The CO, PM2.5 (mass), PM2.5 (number), PM10 (mass), PM10 (number) EFs developed in this research are between 110-120 mg/g of incense, 2.5-3 mg/g of incense, 800-1100 #particles/µg of incense, 32-33 mg/g of incense, 1200-1400 #particles/µg of incense respectively.

Cette thèse présente un nouveau modèle SCRAM (Size and Composition Resolved Aerosol Model) pour simuler la dynamique des particules dans l'atmosphère (nucléation, coagulation, condensation / évaporation) en prenant en compte leur état de mélange, et elle évalue la performance de SCRAM dans des simulations 3D de qualité de l'air. Le travail peut être divisé en quatre parties. Premièrement, la notion de mélange externe est introduite, ainsi que la modélisation de la dynamique des aérosols. Ensuite, le développement du modèle SCRAM est présenté avec des tests de validation. Dans SCRAM, pour définir les compositions, on discrétise d'abord en sections les fractions massiques des composés chimiques des particules ou d'ensembles de composés chimiques. Les compositions des particules sont ensuite définies par les combinaisons des sections de fractions massiques. Les trois processus principaux impliqués dans la dynamique des aérosols (la coagulation, la condensation / évaporation et la nucléation) sont inclus dans SCRAM. SCRAM est validé par comparaison avec des simulations « académiques » publiées dans la littérature de coagulation et condensation/évaporation pour des particules en mélange interne. L'impact de l'hypothèse de mélange externe pour ces simulations est notamment étudié. L'impact du degré de mélange sur les concentrations de particules est ensuite étudié dans une simulation 0-D en utilisant des données représentatives d'un site trafic en Ile de France. L'influence relative sur l'état de mélange des différents processus influençant la dynamique des particules (condensation / évaporation, coagulation) et de l'algorithme utilisé pour modéliser la condensation / évaporation (hypothèse d'équilibre entre les phases gazeuse et particulaire, ou bien modélisation dynamique des échanges gaz/particules) est étudiée. Ensuite, SCRAM est intégré dans la plate-forme de qualité de l'air Polyphemus et utilisé pour effectuer des simulations sur l'Ile de France pendant l'été 2009. Une évaluation par comparaison à des observations a montré que SCRAM donne des résultats satisfaisants pour les concentrations de PM2.5/PM10 et l'épaisseur optique des aérosols. Le modèle est utilisé pour analyser l'état de mélange des particules, ainsi que l'impact des différentes hypothèses de mélange (mélange interne MI ou mélange externe ME) sur la formation des particules et leurs propriétés. Enfin, deux simulations, une avec l'hypothèse de MI et une autre avec l'hypothèse de ME, sont effectuées entre le 15 janvier et le 11 février 2010, pendant la campagne hiver MEGAPOLI (Megacities : Emissions, urban, regional and Global Atmospheric POLlution and climate effects, and Integrated tools for assessment and mitigation) durant laquelle les compositions des particules individuelles ont été mesurées. Les concentrations simulées de composés chimiques (concentration massique totale de différents composés) et les concentrations des classes de particules individuelles (une classe est définie par sa taille et sa composition chimique) sont comparées avec les observations à un site urbain parisien. Un indicateur de la diversité des particules et de l'état de mélange est calculé à partir des simulations et comparé à celui calculé à partir des mesures. Le modèle se compare bien aux observations avec un état de mélange moyen simulé de 69% contre 59% dans les observations, indiquant que les particules ne sont pas en mélange interne sur Paris / This thesis present a newly developed size-composition resolved aerosol model (SCRAM), which is able to simulate the dynamics of externally-mixed particles in the atmosphere, and it evaluates its performance in three-dimensional air-quality simulations. The main work is split into four parts. First, the research context of external mixing and aerosol modelling is introduced. Secondly, the development of the SCRAM box model is presented along with validation tests. Each particle composition is defined by the combination of mass-fraction sections of its chemical components or aggregates of components. The three main processes involved in aerosol dynamic (nucleation, coagulation, condensation/evaporation) are included in SCRAM. The model is first validated by comparisons with published reference solutions for coagulation and condensation/evaporation of internally-mixed particles. The particle mixing state is investigated in a 0-D simulation using data representative of air pollution at a traffic site in Paris. The relative influence on the mixing state of the different aerosol processes and of the algorithm used to model condensation/evaporation (dynamic evolution or bulk equilibrium between particles and gas) is studied. Then, SCRAM is integrated into the Polyphemus air quality platform and used to conduct simulations over Greater Paris during the summer period of 2009. This evaluation showed that SCRAM gives satisfactory results for both PM2.5/PM10 concentrations and aerosol optical depths, as assessed from comparisons to observations. Besides, the model allows us to analyze the particle mixing state, as well as the impact of the mixing state assumption made in the modelling on particle formation, aerosols optical properties, and cloud condensation nuclei activation. Finally, two simulations are conducted during the winter campaign of MEGAPOLI (Megacities : Emissions, urban, regional and Global Atmospheric POLlution and climate effects, and Integrated tools for assessment and mitigation) in January 2010 where the composition of individual particles was measured. One simulation assumes that particles are internally mixed, while the other explicitly models the mixing state with SCRAM. The simulation results of both bulk concentrations of chemical species and concentrations of individual particle classes are compared with the measurements. Then, the single particle diversity and the mixing-state index are computed using a quantification approach based on information-theoretic entropy, and they are compared to those derived from the measurements at a urban site in Paris: the simulated mixing-state index is equal to 69% against 59% from the measurements, indicating that particles are not internally mixed over Paris

En passant près de 90% de son temps dans les espaces clos, l'Homme est exposé à des polluants particulaires de diverses natures d'origines exogène et endogène au bâtiment, pour lesquels aucune valeur guide n'est disponible. Parmi ces polluants figurent les particules biologiques et notamment les spores fongiques, particules vivantes les plus nombreuses et les plus diversifiées de l'air que nous respirons (Nolard, 1997). Ubiquitaire et délétère, la pollution particulaire fongique est mise en cause dans la survenue de nombreuses pathologies parmi lesquelles se trouvent les maladies immuno-allergiques. Dans le cadre de la surveillance de la qualité micro-biologique de l'air des espaces clos, cette thèse vise à fournir les premiers éléments de conception d'un outil individuel de diagnostic dédié à l'évaluation de l'exposition des occupants aux aérobiocontaminants allergéniques en s'intéressant plus particulièrement à la pollution fongique aéroportée. Cette recherche repose sur les expertises techniques et scientifiques du CSTB, de l'ESIEE et de l'Université Paris-Est en matière de détection fongique, de miniaturisation d'instruments de mesure via les micro technologies et de physique des aérosols. Se faisant, ces travaux cristallisent autour d'une architecture système reposant sur trois axes : la capture et sélection des particules selon leurs propriétés physico-chimiques de surface, la quantification de la masse des particules et l'identification de la nature des particules à l'aide d'une analyse chimique. Ces axes correspondent à autant de thématiques abordées au cours de ces travaux de thèse. Ainsi, la première a consisté à étudier l'adhérence des conidies aux surfaces afin de mieux cerner les déterminants de ce phénomène physique et évaluer les énergies mises en jeu. Les résultats subséquents ont permis, lors d'une deuxième phase de travail, de dimensionner une microbalance en silicium de type MEMS en replaçant les problématiques liées aux interactions particules-résonateurs au cœur du débat. Par ce biais, l'enjeu a été de lever certains verrous scientifiques constatés dans la littérature, telles des sensibilités non-uniformes sur toute la surface des dispositifs de mesure ou encore des réponses en fréquence non linéaires avec la masse déposée. Une telle approche a en outre permis d'évaluer les performances attendues pour de tels capteurs. Enfin, le dernier aspect de cette recherche a porté sur l'identification des particules aéroportées biologiques par voie chimique en combinant pyrolyse des entités biologiques d'intérêt, chromatographie en phase gazeuse et spectroscopie de masse (Py-CPG/MS). A cette occasion, un travail collaboratif engagé avec le Réseau National de Surveillance Aérobiologique a permis d'éprouver la solution technologique et la méthodologie employées puisqu'une seconde catégorie de particules modèles a alors été considérée : les pollens. L'analyse des composés organiques volatiles issus de l'analyse Py-CPG/MS des micromycètes et des pollens a permis de démontrer l'existence d'une signature chimique spécifique de l'origine biologique des particules. Suite à cela, il a été possible d'établir diverses listes de traceurs chimiques caractéristiques des phyla voire des espèces des différents contaminants étudiés. La pertinence de ces marqueurs a alors été éprouvée lors d'un essai in situ / Nowadays people pass 90% of their time in closed spaces, and in consequence are exposed to indoor and outdoor particulate matter for which no reference value is available. These pollutants include biological particles and in particular fungal spores, the most numerous living particles and most diverse on the air we breathe (Nolard, 1997). Ubiquitous and harmful, fungal particulate pollution is implicated in the occurrence of many diseases including immuno-allergic diseases. In the context of the monitoring of the microbiological quality of air in indoor spaces, this thesis aims to provide first design elements of an individual diagnostic device dedicated to the exposure assessment of allergenic bio-contaminants focusing in particular on airborne fungal pollution. This research relies on the technical and scientific expertise of CSTB, ESIEE Paris and Université Paris-Est for fungal detection, miniaturization of measurement instrumentation and aerosol physics. Thus, this work is built around a system architecture based on three main elements: the capture and selection of particles according to their surface physical and chemical properties, the particles mass quantification and the identification of the nature of the particle using chemical analysis. These elements relate to many topics covered during the thesis work. In this way, the first topic consists in studying the adhesion of conidia to surfaces to better understand the determinants of this physical phenomenon and evaluate the energies involved. Subsequent results were used during a second stage of this work, to design a MEMS-type silicon microbalance considering the particle-resonator interaction. By this mean the issue was to solve some scientific challenges identified in the literature, such non-uniform sensitivity over the entire device surface or nonlinear frequency responses due to the added mass. Such an approach has also allowed evaluating the performance expected for such sensors. The last aspect of this research focused on the identification of biological airborne particles chemically combining pyrolysis of biological entities of interest, and gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). On this occasion, a collaborative work engaged with the "Réseau National de Surveillance Aérobiologique" allowed to experience the technological solution and our methodology since another class of particles was considered: pollens. The analysis of volatile organic compounds obtained from Py-GC/MS characterization of micro-fungi and pollens demonstrated the existence of a specific chemical signature for each biological particle class. Thereafter, it was then possible to establish a variety of chemical markers lists for phyla and different species of the contaminants studied. The relevance of these markers has been further tested in an in-situ assay

Climate change expected from increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations has been studied widely (IPCC, 1990). Further, it is recognized that cities are a major source of anthropogenic CO₂. However, few studies of CO₂ concentrations in, or near, cities have been conducted. A LI-COR infrared gas analyzer was operated at the Sunset Tower in a suburban region of Vancouver during different time periods in 1993 and 1994. Sampling revealed important information on seasonal and diurnal variations. The observed summertime concentrations show a clear diurnal signal around the expected upwind background concentration, and are described by a late afternoon minimum, and overnight maximum. The afternoon CO₂ minimum is attributed to the strength of biospheric photosynthesis and strong mixing of local anthropogenic sources within a large mixed layer. Poor nighttime mixing, lower mixed depths, and biospheric respiration account for the observed nighttime maximum, often more than 80 ppmv greater than the background concentration. A simple numerical multiple-box transport model was developed to simulate the observed diurnal pattern of CO₂ concentration at the suburban site. CO₂ emissions inventories for important mobile sources, stationary sources, and biospheric sources and sinks are calculated as input to the model for upwind fetch areas. Other CO₂ inputs include advection, entrainment from above the mixed layer and determination of the mixed layer depth. Results of both observations and modelling show large diurnal variation in CO₂ concentrations, and the importance of boundary layer structure (as defined by the mixed layer) on concentrations at a specific location. In terms of CO₂, the role of the city is placed in it global context. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

The link between a good indoor climate and environmental impacts e.g. global warming and different pollution in the air is something that are important today and will certainly become more important in the future with increased energy prices and new laws. Too keep the indoor air quality within limits is it important to have a good and competitive ventilationsystem. The ventilations function is mainly to supply fresh air and to remove polluted air from the room. It’s important that the ventilation system works as it should so that the indoor air quality is as good as possible. The lack of good ventilation can create several symptoms such as headaches, nausea, fatigue, poor concentration etc. In Sweden are ventilation control mandatory for every newly produced building and this control are repetitive usually every 3-6 years for some types of buildings.   The foundation of this thesis is from a previous degree project performed by a master’s student in 2013 named Ander Barroeta with supervision of Magnus Mattsson and Taghi Karimipanah. The thesis was to improve and design a ventilation system in two rooms at a training facility named Friskis & Svettis in Gävle so that the CO2 level did not exceed 1000 ppm.   In this thesis was the main goal to do similar measurements as the previous thesis and compare the results to see what difference air balancing has done to the ventilation system. Field measurements were performed at the training facility were the focus was on carbon dioxide but also on other parameters such as temperature, humidity and air velocity so that air exchange rate could be calculated. With these parameters can evaluations be made to see if air balancing of the ventilation system made any difference in indoor air quality.       During measurements in one of the training rooms where spinning is exercised was carbon dioxide levels up to 3300 ppm measured which is above the recommended indoor limit at 1000 ppm. If that room should be design to not exceed 1000 ppm must the air exchange rate increase from 6.3 h-1 to 35.1 h-1.

Black carbon (BC) is the light-absorbing component of soot, a combustion-generated aerosol that warms the climate by absorbing solar radiation. Its impacts on climate depend on its microphysical properties, which are modified by atmospheric processes including condensation, coagulation and wet removal. State of the art climate models consider soot in a concentric core/shell configuration, with a BC core coated by nonrefractory material such as organics or sulphate. Within this model, thicker coatings enhance visible light absorption, but also wet removal efficiency, and these have opposing effects on the total amount of light absorbed over BC’s lifetime. How well the core/shell model can calculate Mass Absorption Coefficient (MAC, the ratio of absorption to BC mass) is uncertain, as real soot forms more complex (often fractal) shapes, and detailed optical models using these morphologies predict the core/shell model may under- or over-estimate MAC depending on the precise properties of the particles. Few reliable measurements of variations in ambient MAC are available, as most older measurement techniques suffer from systematic uncertainties. In this work, a Single Particle Soot Photometer (SP2) and PhotoAcoustic Soot Spectrometer (PASS) were used to measure BC mass concentration and absorption, and these instruments do not suffer from such uncertainties. The SP2 was also used to report core size and coating thickness distributions that are required to test state of the art climate models. Firstly, a method was developed to minimise bias in the measured coating thicknesses related to the limited detection range of the SP2. The sensitivity of this technique to the assumed density and refractive index of the BC core was also explored, and the most appropriate parameters to use with ambient measurements were determined. Core and shell distributions were measured in Pasadena, California under a range of different photochemical ages. These were then used to calculate MAC, which was compared to that measured using the SP2 and PASS. The measured and modelled MAC agreed within 10% at 532 nm, though this was dependent on the assumed refractive index of the BC core. Overall MAC increased by 15 –25% in around one third of a day of photochemical ageing. This is quite modest compared to some climate models, but not compared to the previous best estimate, which predicted MAC may increase by a factor of ~1.5 over BC’s lifetime. Core and coating distributions were also measured in Canadian boreal biomass burning plumes. A case study was presented comparing the properties of BC in three plumes, one of which had passed through a precipitating cloud. It was demonstrated that larger and more coated BC-containing particles were removed more efficiently, in agreement with previous thermodynamic theory. By calculating MAC using the measured core/shell distributions and comparing to measured scattering, it was demonstrated that the MAC and single-scattering albedo in the plumes were likely not significantly affected by the wet removal, as greater differences were observed between the two plumes not affected by precipitation.

Atmospheric aerosols are the major component in the shorter-term variability governing the radiative balance of the climate system, particularly on regional scales. However, knowledge of the myriad of properties and processes associated with aerosols is often limited, which results in major uncertainties when assessing their climate effects. One such aspect is the chemical make-up of the atmospheric aerosol burden.Airborne measurements of aerosol properties across Northern Europe are presented here in order to facilitate constraint of the properties, processes and effects of aerosols in this highly populated and industrialised region. An Aerodyne Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (AMS) delivered highly time-resolved measurements of aerosol chemical components, which included organic matter, sulphate, nitrate and ammonium.The chemical composition of the aerosol burden was strongly determined by the dominant meteorological conditions in Northern Europe. Pollution loadings in North- Western Europe were strongly enhanced when air masses originated from Continental Europe. Conversely, much cleaner conditions were associated with air masses from the Atlantic Ocean.Organic matter was found to be ubiquitous across Northern Europe and predominantly secondary in nature, which is consistent with other analyses in polluted regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Furthermore, its concentration was generally comparable to, or exceeded that of, sulphate. Significant chemical processing of the organic aerosol component was observed. Highly oxidised secondary organic aerosol dominated, as the distance from source and photochemical processing increased.Ammonium nitrate was found to be a major component of the aerosol burden in Northern Europe, with peak contributions occurring in North-Western Europe, due to the co-location of its emission precursors (NH3 and NOx) in the region. Ammonium nitrate was found to be the dominant sub-micron chemical constituent during periods associated with enhanced pollution episodes. Its concentration was shown to be modulated by the thermodynamic structure of the lower troposphere, with enhanced concentrations prevalent at the top of the boundary layer. This phenomenon greatly enhanced the radiative impact of the aerosol burden; the increased mass and water uptake by the aerosol significantly amplified the aerosol optical depth in the region.The results presented in this thesis highlight a highly dynamic region, where major changes in emissions have played a significant role in determining the chemical composition of the aerosol burden. As substantial reductions in sulphur dioxide emissions have occurred over the past two decades in Northern Europe, the relative contribution of sulphate aerosols to the regional aerosol burden has decreased. Consequently, it is more pertinent to consider the roles of organic matter and ammonium nitrate, as their influence becomes more pronounced than sulphate on regional and global climate.

This thesis studies the use of night ventilation as a passive cooling strategy for a traditional courtyard house in a hot dry climate. This was done by CFD simulation of the house and its surroundings, using weather data for Baghdad. The simulation was done for a large number of scenarios in which each represented a change in one of the house elements, such as courtyard and room dimensions, and in some cases included modern technologies such as a ceiling fan. The thesis suggests that performance should be calculated with the aid of a "Night Time Effectiveness Ratio" (NTER) and time constants. The findings show that building elements can change the performance to various degrees, that the airflow patterns inside the rooms change from day to night, and that the thermal conditions during the day depend more on the intensity of solar radiation than other factors. The results show that a courtyard house can ensure the thermal comfort for its residents. However, it needs some assistance from new techniques such as fans to keep the air quality inside the house within acceptable limits. The values for NTER from initial simulations are around ten, which indicate that night ventilation is not enough for cooling the building. However, the values drop to less than one by using a small and narrow courtyard with a two-level house and a gallery around the courtyard. Also, it is necessary to have a connection between the courtyard and alleyway at ground level in the night only and to cover the courtyard during the day. The windows have the largest role in deciding the performance of night ventilation. Ideally they should be small and tall, or preferably a pair of windows separated by a vertical distance and kept closed during the day. The effects of room dimension are clearer in affecting the thermal comfort more than improving the performance of night ventilation. The research also examines the indoor air quality and suggests ways to improve it. Some of the ways are traditional like the use of a wind catcher in ventilating the courtyard and the basement, and others are more modern like using an exhaust fan. Furthermore, it suggests an algorithm to control these ways and to introduce only a limited quantity of fresh air to avoid excessive warming. Suggestions for future work are given, including tests for more elements in the courtyard house and for longer duration runs. It would also be helpful to study the use of latent heat storage (e.g. phase change material) as an additional effective thermal mass.