The use of steady-state aerodynamic optimization methods in the computational fluid dynamic (CFD) community is fairly well established. In particular, the use of adjoint methods has proven to be very beneficial because their cost is independent of the number of design variables. The application of numerical optimization to airframe-generated noise, however, has not received as much attention, but with the significant quieting of modern engines, airframe noise now competes with engine noise. Optimal control techniques for unsteady flows are needed in order to be able to reduce airframe-generated noise. In this thesis, a general framework is formulated to calculate the gradient of a cost function in a nonlinear unsteady flow environment via the discrete adjoint method. The unsteady optimization algorithm developed in this work utilizes a Newton-Krylov approach since the gradient-based optimizer uses the quasi-Newton method BFGS, Newton's method is applied to the nonlinear flow problem, GMRES is used to solve the resulting linear problem inexactly, and last but not least the linear adjoint problem is solved using Bi-CGSTAB. The flow is governed by the unsteady two-dimensional compressible Navier-Stokes equations in conjunction with a one-equation turbulence model, which are discretized using structured grids and a finite difference approach. The effectiveness of the unsteady optimization algorithm is demonstrated by applying it to several problems of interest including shocktubes, pulses in converging-diverging nozzles, rotating cylinders, transonic buffeting, and an unsteady trailing-edge flow. In order to address radiated far-field noise, an acoustic wave propagation program based on the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings (FW-H) formulation is implemented and validated. The general framework is then used to derive the adjoint equations for a novel hybrid URANS/FW-H optimization algorithm in order to be able to optimize the shape of airfoils based on their calculated far-field pressure fluctuations. Validation and application results for this novel hybrid URANS/FW-H optimization algorithm show that it is possible to optimize the shape of an airfoil in an unsteady flow environment to minimize its radiated far-field noise while maintaining good aerodynamic performance.

The use of steady-state aerodynamic optimization methods in the computational fluid dynamic (CFD) community is fairly well established. In particular, the use of adjoint methods has proven to be very beneficial because their cost is independent of the number of design variables. The application of numerical optimization to airframe-generated noise, however, has not received as much attention, but with the significant quieting of modern engines, airframe noise now competes with engine noise. Optimal control techniques for unsteady flows are needed in order to be able to reduce airframe-generated noise. In this thesis, a general framework is formulated to calculate the gradient of a cost function in a nonlinear unsteady flow environment via the discrete adjoint method. The unsteady optimization algorithm developed in this work utilizes a Newton-Krylov approach since the gradient-based optimizer uses the quasi-Newton method BFGS, Newton's method is applied to the nonlinear flow problem, GMRES is used to solve the resulting linear problem inexactly, and last but not least the linear adjoint problem is solved using Bi-CGSTAB. The flow is governed by the unsteady two-dimensional compressible Navier-Stokes equations in conjunction with a one-equation turbulence model, which are discretized using structured grids and a finite difference approach. The effectiveness of the unsteady optimization algorithm is demonstrated by applying it to several problems of interest including shocktubes, pulses in converging-diverging nozzles, rotating cylinders, transonic buffeting, and an unsteady trailing-edge flow. In order to address radiated far-field noise, an acoustic wave propagation program based on the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings (FW-H) formulation is implemented and validated. The general framework is then used to derive the adjoint equations for a novel hybrid URANS/FW-H optimization algorithm in order to be able to optimize the shape of airfoils based on their calculated far-field pressure fluctuations. Validation and application results for this novel hybrid URANS/FW-H optimization algorithm show that it is possible to optimize the shape of an airfoil in an unsteady flow environment to minimize its radiated far-field noise while maintaining good aerodynamic performance.

Foi realizado um estudo comparativo da capacidade de duas variantes do método de radiografia por raios- X em detectar trincas de fadiga em juntas sobrepostas rebitadas de laminado híbrido metal-fibra Glare® de uso aeronáutico. Durante os ensaios mecânicos de fadiga sob amplitude constante de tensão, diversos corpos de prova rebitados foram periodicamente inspecionados por raios-X, em ambas as modalidades convencional e digital. Raios-X em filmes convencionais digital. Raios-X em filmes convencionais proporcionaram ótimo detalhamento de trincas nas juntas mecânicas, enquanto que as imagens geradas pela modalidade digital apresentaram qualidade muito inferior, prejudicando ou até mesmo impedindo a avaliação do grau de integridade estrutural das juntas rebitadas. / A comparison is performed on the ability of two modalities of nondestructive X-ray radiography method in detecting fatigue cracks in riveted lap joints of aeronautical grade fiber-metal laminate Glare™. During constant amplitude loading in fatigue testing riveted specimens were periodically inspected using both the conventional and digital X-ray methodology. Conventional film X-ray modality provided high quality images of growing cracks in the mechanical joints, whereas digital radiography generated faulty images, which impaired or even prevented the structural integrity assessment of the riveted joints.

No description available.

Since the 1970s, when the reaction engines had their noise reduced by the increase in their bypass ratio, airframe became the most prominent aerodynamic noise source during the approach to landing. From the airframe noise sources, the high-lift devices are one of the most significant. The most studied and applied solutions for these noise sources refer to passive flow control, and there are relatively few studies related to active flow control. Active flow control is achieved by adding energy to the flow in order to manipulate it. One way to accomplish this is through the dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuators. These devices create an intense electric field between two electrodes separated by a dielectric. This strong electric field ionizes and accelerates the air through collision of charged particles of the plasma with neutral air molecules. Thus, a wall jet is produced without using moving parts. In this research, plasma actuators were installed at the flap side edge, at the cove and at the cusp of the slat. Wind tunnel tests have demonstrated the potential of these devices for high-lift noise reduction, allowing for a decrease up to 0.75 dB in the overall flap noise and up to 3.3 dB in overall slat noise (with a reduction of 12 dB at the higher peak). / Desde a década de 1970, quando os motores a reação tiveram seu ruído reduzido devido ao aumento da razão de derivação, o ruído de célula se tornou o mais proeminente durante a fase de aproximação para pouso. Do ruído de plataforma aeronáutica, destacam-se os ruídos gerados pela interação do escoamento com os dispositivos hipersustentadores. As soluções mais estudadas e aplicadas para estas fontes de ruído se referem a controle passivo do escoamento, havendo relativamente poucos estudos relacionados a controle ativo. Controle ativo do escoamento é obtido adicionando-se energia ao mesmo, e uma forma de realizar isto é através dos atuadores de plasma de descarga de barreira dielétrica. Nestes dispositivos um intenso campo elétrico entre dois eletrodos separados por um dielétrico é gerado, ionizando e acelerando o ar através da colisão de partículas carregadas do plasma com moléculas neutras. Desta forma, um jato de parede é produzido sem o uso de partes móveis. Nesta pesquisa, atuadores de plasma foram instalados na borda lateral do flape, na cova e na cúspide do eslate. Ensaios em túnel de vento demonstraram o potencial destes dispositivos para redução de ruído de hipersustentadores, permitindo a redução de até 0.75 dB no ruído global de flape e de até 3.3 dB no ruído global de eslate (com redução de 12 dB no maior pico).

[ES] En el presente trabajo se explora posibles soluciones a dos hechos correlacionados que podrían comprometer hasta cierto punto nuestro futuro. Por un lado, el crecimiento de la flota de aeronaves pequeñas en los próximos años, ya sean tripuladas o no, es una realidad. El acceso a estas aeronaves por parte de un público cada vez más mayoritario crece año a año y, al mismo tiempo, los fabricantes adaptan sus aeronaves a misiones que hace unos años no éramos capaces de contemplar. Por otro lado, y por desgracia, el cambio climático también es una realidad que no solo compromete nuestro futuro, sino también nuestro presente. Hoy en día la alerta climática es y debe ser elevada, y si no encontramos soluciones que ayuden a paliar este problema, la vida en el planeta podría cambiar irremediablemente para peor. Ambos hechos se encuentran implícitamente relacionados. La fabricación y operación de vehículos contribuye notablemente a aumentar la huella de carbono. Por lo tanto, el aumento de flota en los próximos años puede tener un impacto notablemente negativo en las emisiones contaminantes y gases de efecto invernadero globales. Es por ello por lo que organismos oficiales y sectores de desarrollo científico y tecnológico impulsan la investigación de posibles soluciones. Este trabajo intenta poner su grano de arena para minimizar este problema común. Se propone la utilización de múltiples tecnologías con el objetivo de disminuir el combustible requerido por aeronaves de 25kg al despegue, y de esta forma, disminuir las emisiones asociadas a su operación. Las tecnologías aplicadas son la hibridación eléctrica en serie, la propulsión eléctrica distribuida y la ingestión de capa límite. Por separado, estas tecnologías han demostrado múltiples ventajas, especialmente en términos de mejora propulsiva y aerodinámica de las aeronaves, lo que repercute directamente en el consumo de combustible. Sin embargo, este trabajo propone la utilización simultánea de todas ellas con el objetivo de disminuir aún más el consumo de combustible y, por tanto, las emisiones contaminantes y gases de efecto invernadero. Para ello, tras estas páginas se eligen los parámetros principales de esta aeronave y se acompaña de un exhaustivo análisis del comportamiento fluidodinámico. Con la comprensión de su comportamiento, es posible optimizar la selección de sus componentes, de forma que se obtienen mejoras importantes en el consumo de combustible. Este ahorro de combustible se muestra en comparación con aeronaves similares en tamaño y peso, pero que no incluyen estas tecnologías, logrando para un mismo alcance un ahorro del 16% del peso del combustible. La realización de este trabajo se centra en el empleo de herramientas computacionales apoyándose sobre todo en la dinámica de fluidos computacional (CFD). Esta herramienta principal se verá complementada con el uso de descomposición modal para realizar los análisis y de la creación de una base de datos que ayude a crear modelos rápidos útiles en futuros diseños preliminares y conceptuales de aeronaves de este tipo. / [CA] En aquest treball s'exploren possibles solucions a dos fets correlacionats que podrien comprometre d'alguna manera el nostre futur. Per un costat, el creixement de la flota d'aeronaus de xicoteta dimensió en el futur, tant tripulades com no tripulades, és una realitat. L'accés a aquestes aeronaus per part d'un públic cada cop més majoritari creix any rere any i, al mateix temps, els fabricants adapten les aeronaus a feines que anys enrere no eren capaços d'assolir. Per l'altre costat, malauradament, el canvi climàtic és un fet que compromet tant el nostre futur com el nostre present. Hui en dia l'alerta climàtica és elevada i, si no trobem solucions per a pal·liar aquest problema la vida al nostre planeta, podria canviar irremeiablement a pitjor. Ambdós fets es troben implícitament relacionats. La fabricació i l'operació de vehicles contribueix notablement a augmentar l'empremta de carboni. Per tant, l'increment de flota en els pròxims anys pot tindre un efecte negatiu molt notable en les emissions contaminants i gasos d'efecte hivernacle globals. És per això que organismes oficials i sectors de desenvolupament científic i tecnològic impulsen la investigació de possibles solucions. Aquest treball intenta aportar el seu granet de sorra per minimitzar aquest problema comú. Es proposa la utilització de múltiples tecnologies amb l'objectiu de reduir el combustible emprat per aeronaus de fins a 25kg i, per tant, disminuir les emissions associades a la seua operació. Les tecnologies aplicades són la hibridació elèctrica en sèrie, la propulsió elèctrica distribuïda i la ingestió de capa límit. Separadament, aquestes tecnologies han demostrat múltiples avantatges, especialment en termes de millora propulsiva i aerodinàmica de les aeronaus, repercutint directament en el consum de combustible. No obstant, aquest treball proposa la utilització simultània de totes elles amb l'objectiu de reduir encara més el consum de combustible i, per tant, les emissions contaminants i gasos d'efecte hivernacle. Per fer-ho, en les darreres pàgines es trien els paràmetres principals de l'aeronau i s'acompanyen d'una exhaustiva anàlisi del comportament de la dinàmica de fluids. Comprenent el seu comportament, és possible optimitzar la selecció dels seus components, de manera que s'obtenen millores importants en el consum de combustible. L'estalvi de combustible es mostra en comparació amb aeronaus similars en mida i pes, però que no inclouen aquestes tecnologies, aconseguint per a un mínim abast un estalvi del 16% del pes del combustible. La realització d'aquest treball es centra en l'ús d'eines computacionals recolzant-se sobretot en la dinàmica de fluids computacional (CFD). Aquesta eina principal es veurà complementada amb l'ús de descomposició modal per a elaborar les anàlisis i de la creació d'una base de dades que ajude a crear models ràpids i útils en futurs dissenys conceptuals i preliminars d'aeronaus d'aquest tipus. / [EN] The present work explores possible solutions to two correlated events that could compromise our future to some extent. On the one hand, the growth of the fleet of small aircraft in the coming years, whether manned or not, is a reality. Access to these aircraft by an increasing majority of the public grows year after year and at the same time, manufacturers adapt their aircraft to missions that we could not contemplate a few years ago. On the other hand, and unfortunately, climate change is also a reality that compromises not only our future but also our present. Today the climate alert is and must be elevated. If we do not find solutions that help alleviate this problem, life on the planet could irremediably change for the worse. Both facts are implicitly related. The manufacture and operation of vehicles contribute significantly to increasing the carbon footprint, so the increase in the fleet in the coming years may have an extremely negative impact on global polluting and greenhouse gas emissions. That is why official organizations and scientific and technological development sectors promote research for possible solutions. This work tries to do its bit to minimize this common problem. Multiple technologies are proposed to reduce the fuel required by 25kg aircraft at takeoff and, thus, reduce the emissions associated with their operation. The applied technologies are electric series hybridization, distributed electric propulsion, and boundary layer ingestion. Separately, these technologies have shown multiple advantages, especially in terms of improving aircraft propulsion and aerodynamics, which directly affects fuel consumption. Nevertheless, this work proposes the simultaneous use of all of them to reduce fuel consumption further and, therefore, polluting and greenhouse gas emissions. To do this, after these pages, the main parameters of this aircraft are chosen and accompanied by an exhaustive analysis of the fluid dynamic behavior. With an understanding of its behavior, it is possible to optimize its components' selection so that significant fuel consumption improvements are obtained. This fuel saving is shown in comparison with similar aircraft in size and weight, but that does not include these technologies, achieving a saving of 16% of fuel weight for the same range. This work's conduction focuses on employing computational tools mainly based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD). This primary tool will be complemented by the use of modal decomposition to carry out the analyses, and the creation of a database that will help create quick models useful in future conceptual and preliminary designs of this type of aircraft. / The respondent would like to acknowledge the financial support received through contract FPI-UPV PREDOCFD/19 of Subprograma 2 of Universitat Politècnica de València / Varela Martínez, P. (2023). On the Analysis and Design of Series Hybrid Distributed Electric Propulsion with Boundary Layer Ingestion of Remotely Piloted Aircraft [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/192805