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Control and analysis of protein aggregation is an increasing challenge to biopharmaceutical research and development. Therefore it is important to understand the interactions, causes and analysis of particles in order to control protein aggregation to enable successful biopharmaceutical formulations. This work investigates the role of different non-ionic surfactants on protein conformational stability, as assessed by HSDSC, and on protein size stability as assessed by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), HIAC and MFI. BSA and IgG2 were used as model proteins. Thermal unfolding experiments indicated a very weak surfactant-immunoglobulin IgG2 interaction, compared to much stronger interactions for the BSA surfactant systems. The DLS results showed that BSA and IgG2 with different surfactants and concentration produced different levels of particle size growth. The heat treatment and aging of samples in the presence of Tween 20, Tween 80, Brij 35 and Pluronic F-68 surfactants led to an increase in the populations of larger particles for BSA samples, whereas IgG2 systems did not notably aggregate under storage conditions MFI was shown to be more sensitive than HIAC technique for measuring sub-visible particles in protein surfactant systems. Heat treatment and storage stress showed a significant effect on BSA and IgG2 protein sub-visible particle size stability. This work has demonstrated that both proteins with different Tween 20, Tween 80, Brij 35 and Pluronic F-68 concentrations, have different level of conformational and size stability. Also aging samples and heating stress bears the potential to generate particles, but this depends on surfactant type. Poor predictive correlations between the analytical methods were determined.

Proteins are the center of all biochemical reactions in living organisms. Proteins need to be present at the right time, in the right place, with the correct concentration and have the right shape to carry their designated function. Protein homeostasis is when all proteins in the proteome are in functional balance, and such balance is maintained by synthesis, folding, and degradation machinery. When protein homeostasis is lost, organisms start to age and develop diseases. To truly unveil disease mechanisms and provide more efficient means for treatment and prevention, we need a holistic understanding of the mechanism of protein homeostasis. Currently, most biomarker studies focus on the quantity aspect of the proteome. The quality aspect has been neglected because of the difficulties in measuring quality in vivo with cellular context retained. This work first proposes a kinetic model of protein homeostasis, which can provide a holistic view, including both quantity and quality aspects, as well as monitor the complex protein interactions. Using mass spectrometry, the model quantifies the quality of proteome by linking the concentration of protein, mRNA, and the rate protein synthesis, folding, unfolding, misfolding, refolding, degradation of the correctly folded protein, and degradation of protein aggregation. We then applied the ideas within the kinetic model of protein homeostasis to study several proteins in human blood serum. We reviewed the current known mechanism of transthyretin mediated amyloidosis and proposed a study approach that can measure the quality difference between different transthyretin's mutation stages, as well as monitor if the transthyretin amyloidosis has been developed at the early stage. We also used mass-spectrometry to quantify the surface accessibility differences in human serum albumin (HSA) between patients with and without rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We found certain residues are less reactive in the RA group, indicating a structural change in HSA. Such structural changes, possibly caused by ligand binding, stabilized HSA and explained the heat denature curve shift we observed. In the end, we introduced a novel assay, Iodination Protein Stability Assay (IPSA). IPSA is used to quantify protein quality by measuring protein folding stability. We applied IPSA to human serum, and it is the first in situ study, to our best knowledge, that measure the protein folding stability of proteins from human serum. We confirmed that IPSA is sensitive to measuring the differences in protein folding stability between transferrin's different iron-binding states. Together, this dissertation conveys the importance of adding quality aspects to current quantity-focused research in curing diseases and improving the quality of human life.

[pt] Na busca de novos quimioterápicos diferentes dos clássicos derivados de cisplatina, ligantes derivados aroíl-hidrazônicos e complexos de cobre(II) aparecem como compostos promissores. Esta tese relata o desenvolvimento e a síntese de uma nova combinação desses compostos a partir de oito ligantes bases de Schift aroíl-hidrazônicos inéditos e seus Cu2-complexos derivados de sais de perclorato ou acetato 1‒14. Os complexos de cobre(II) obtidos contêm em suas estruturas modelos estruturais de sítios ativos de algumas metaloenzimas. Os compostos foram amplamente caracterizados utilizando várias técnicas espectroscópicas e analíticas. As análises por difração de raios X de quatro ligantes e cinco complexos são descritas em detalhes nessa tese. A estabilidade dos compostos foi estudada em meio celular e sua atividade biológica foi analisada. Os resultados incluem um estudo da interação de dois ligantes derivados de tiofeno (H3L1) ou furano (H3L2) e seus respectivos complexos 1 e 2 (primeiro conjunto de compostos) com uma proteína e DNA do timo de vitelo (calf thymus DNA), com o objetivo de medir a afinidade de ligação à albumina sérica bovina e ao DNA usando as técnicas de absorção de UV/Visível e/ou fluorescência. Adicionalmente, foi visto através de técnicas de espalhamento de luz que a interação entre os compostos e a proteína é reversível. Uma importante contribuição do presente trabalho foi analisar a capacidade de clivagem do DNA plasmidial de dois complexos 1 e 2 usando a técnica de espalhamento de luz dinâmico. Neste trabalho são estudadas as alterações do raio hidrodinâmico do DNA plasmidial causada pelo corte nas hélices resultante da presença dos complexos. Ensaios de citotoxicidades em algumas células cancerígenas, revelaram a alta capacidade dos ligantes (H3L1 and H3L2) e dos complexos (1 e 2) de induzir a morte celular. Ademais, as muitas propriedades biológicas, incluindo a atividade anticancerígena do fragmento isoxazol, motivaram sua inclusão na estrutura dos ligantes H3L3 and H2L4 e complexos 3‒6 (segundo conjunto de compostos). A combinação dessas estruturas pode vir a ser promissora na procura de novos medicamentos contra o câncer. A interação dos derivados dos ligantes isoxazol-aroíl-hidrazônicos com o DNA foi diretamente estudada por espectroscopia na absorbância e fluorescência, usando as propriedades luminescentes apresentadas pelos ligantes. No caso dos complexos, o ensaio de deslocamento de brometo de etídio revelou uma afinidade importante através da intercalação nos ácidos nucleicos da sequência do DNA. Adicionalmente, este trabalho conseguiu demostrar que ligantes e complexos contendo um braço fenólico no lugar de um braço piridínico melhoram a citotoxicidade in vitro em células de câncer de mama epitelial humano, alcançando a faixa nanomolar. A capacidade de metalação e transmetalação dos ligantes binucleares H3L3 e H2L4 e seus complexos de cobre 3‒6 com Fe(II), Fe(III) e Zn(II) provenientes do meio biológico foi verificada como uma estratégia adicional para induzir a morte de células cancerígenas. Além disso, para estudar a interação dos compostos com o sistema biológico e/ou para demostrar a permeabilidade celular dos compostos, os ligantes (H3L5‒H3L7) e complexos (7‒12) foram funcionalizados com fluoróforos potentes como pireno (H3L5) (conjunto três de compostos), benzopiranotiofeno (H3L6) ou borodipirrometeno (H3L7) (conjunto quatro de compostos) associados aos fragmentos hidrazônicos. Estudos de microscopia de fluorescência do ligando H3L7 comprovaram sua presença dentro de células de câncer. Também, análises de co-localização para organelas mostraram a afinidade dos ligantes com a mitocôndria. Finalmente, motivada pelas propriedades biológicas da molécula isoniaziada e seu uso em tratamentos de quimioterapia, esta tese mostra de forma general a síntese, caracterização e citotoxicidade de um novo ligante isoniazídico (H2L8) e seus complexos de perclorato ou acetato de cobre(II) 13 e 14 (conjunto cinco de compostos) visando realizar um pedido de patente. / [en] On the search of new chemotherapeutic agents differing from the classic cisplatin family drugs, aroylhydrazonic derivatives and their copper(II) complexes appear as promising compounds. This thesis reports on the design and syntheses of a novel combination of them through eight new aroylhydrazones and their fourteen perchlorate and/or acetate Cu2-complexes 1‒14. The obtained bioinspired copper(II) complexes constitute structural models for the active sites of some type 3 copper enzymes. The compounds were fully characterized using various spectroscopic and analytical techniques. X-ray diffraction structures for four ligands and five complexes are described in detail. Compounds stability was studied in cellular medium and their biological activity was examined. The results include a large study on the interaction of two thiophene (H3L1) or furan (H3L2) ligand derivatives and their respective μ-hydroxo dicopper complexes 1 and 2 (first set of compounds) respectively, with bovine serum albumin protein and calf thymus DNA using different spectroscopic techniques, which include the binding affinity to BSA and DNA using UV/Visible and/or fluorescence techniques. Additionally, scattering techniques revealed that the interaction between the compounds and BSA induces reversible aggregation of the biomolecules. As an important contribution of the present work, the plasmid DNA cleavage ability of the complexes 1 and 2 was studied by Dynamic Light Scattering. The changes of hydrodynamic radius values of pBR322 plasmid DNA are correlated to the nick induced by the complexes in the helices. Cytotoxic assays on some cancer cells revealed the high ability of H3L1 and H3L2, and complexes 1 and 2 to induce cell death. On the other hand, the many biological properties, including anticancer activity, of the isoxazole molecule, motivated the inclusion of this moiety in two ligands H3L3 and H2L4 and four complexes 3‒6 (second set of compounds). Interaction of these isoxazole-aroylhydrazonic ligand derivatives with DNA was directly studied by absorbance and fluorescence spectroscopy, as a result of the fluorescence properties displayed by the ligands. In the case of the isoxazole-aroylhydrazonic complexes-DNA interaction, the ethidium bromide displacement assay revealed significant affinity by intercalation binding mode of the nucleic acid in the DNA sequence. Additionally, this work successfully demonstrated that ligands and complexes containing a phenol pendant arm instead of a pyridine one improve the in vitro cytotoxicity on human epithelial breast cancer cells, attaining nanomolar range. Metal chelation and transmetallation ability of binucleating ligands H3L3 and H2L4 and their copper complexes 3‒6 with Fe(II), Fe(III) and Zn(II) from the biological medium was verified as an additional cell death induction anticancer strategy. Moreover, to study the interaction of the compounds with the biological system and to demonstrate their cell permeability, ligands (H3L5‒H3L7) and complexes (7‒12) were functionalized in their hydrazone moieties with potent fluorophores, such pyrene (H3L5) (set three of compounds), benzopyranothiophene (H3L6), or boron-dipyrromethene (H3L7) derivatives (set four of compounds). Fluorescence microscopy studies proved the presence of ligand H3L7 inside cancer cells, proving its ability to pass through the cell membrane. Besides, co-localization analysis for organelles showed the affinity of this ligand for the mitochondria. Finally, motived by the wide spectrum of biological properties of the isoniazid molecule and its use in chemotherapy, this thesis reports the syntheses, characterization and cytotoxicity studies on cancer cells of a new isonicotinoyl hydrazone ligand (H2L8) and its perchlorate or acetate copper(II) complexes 13 and 14 (set five of compounds), which are involved in a patent request.

Aims: The thesis deals with the biomarkers of early renal injury, namely albuminuria and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL). The aims in the case of albuminuria were the implementation of HPLC method, comparing HPLC with immunoturbidimetric (IT) method and monitoring the relationship to the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. The aim of urinary NGAL (and eventually other markers) examination was to verify its reliability in the prediction of acute kidney injury (AKI). Methods: We investigated albuminuria in fresh urine samples in the groups of 636 diabetics and 456 nondiabetics using the HPLC method (Agilent 1200, Agilent Technologies, USA) and immunoturbidimetrically (Cobas Integra 400, Roche Diagnostics); we studied the correlations and relationships between albuminuria and glycated hemoglobin HbA1c. We investigated urinary NGAL by chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay (Architect i4000, Abbott) in children's groups: 1) after renal transplantation (N = 15), 2) with acute or chronic kidney disease (N = 28); and in adult patient's groups: 1) after cardiac surgery (N = 10) and 2) post angiography (N = 41). Results: Albuminuria determined by HPLC was statistically significantly higher than albuminuria determined by IT. We excluded nonspecificity of the HPLC method. Results indicate...

<p>In this thesis some multivariate spectroscopic methods for the analysis of solutions are proposed. Spectroscopy and multivariate data analysis form a powerful combination for obtaining both quantitative and qualitative information and it is shown how spectroscopic techniques in combination with chemometric data evaluation can be used to obtain rapid, simple and efficient analytical methods. These spectroscopic methods consisting of spectroscopic analysis, a high level of automation and chemometric data evaluation can lead to analytical methods with a high analytical capacity, and for these methods, the term high-capacity analysis (HCA) is suggested. It is further shown how chemometric evaluation of the multivariate data in chromatographic analyses decreases the need for baseline separation. </p><p>The thesis is based on six papers and the chemometric tools used are experimental design, principal component analysis (PCA), soft independent modelling of class analogy (SIMCA), partial least squares regression (PLS) and parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC). The analytical techniques utilised are scanning ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, diode array detection (DAD) used in non-column chromatographic diode array UV spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) and fluorescence spectroscopy. The methods proposed are exemplified in the analysis of pharmaceutical solutions and serum proteins.</p><p>In Paper I a method is proposed for the determination of the content and identity of the active compound in pharmaceutical solutions by means of UV-Vis spectroscopy, orthogonal signal correction and multivariate calibration with PLS and SIMCA classification. Paper II proposes a new method for the rapid determination of pharmaceutical solutions by the use of non-column chromatographic diode array UV spectroscopy, i.e. a conventional HPLC-DAD system without any chromatographic column connected. In Paper III an investigation is made of the ability of a control sample, of known content and identity to diagnose and correct errors in multivariate predictions something that together with use of multivariate residuals can make it possible to use the same calibration model over time. In Paper IV a method is proposed for simultaneous determination of serum proteins with fluorescence spectroscopy and multivariate calibration. Paper V proposes a method for the determination of chromatographic peak purity by means of PCA of HPLC-DAD data. In Paper VI PARAFAC is applied for the decomposition of DAD data of some partially separated peaks into the pure chromatographic, spectral and concentration profiles. </p>

Carbon-based materials are poised to be an important class of 21st century materials, for bio-medical, bio-electronic, and bio-sensing applications. Diamond and polymers are two examples of carbon-based materials of high interest to the bio-materials community. Diamond, in its conductive form, can be used as an electrochemical bio-sensor, whilst its nanoparticle form is considered a non-inflammatory platform to deliver drugs or to grow neuronal cells. Polymers, especially when chemically modified, have been used extensively in biological environments, from anti-microbial use to drug delivery. The large-scale use of either material for biological use is limited by two factors: ease of chemical modification and the paucity of knowledge of their surface chemistry in aqueous media. This thesis addresses aspects of both these issues. The first study reported is an in situ study of the adsorption dynamics of an exemplar globular protein (bovine serum albumin, BSA) on nanodiamond using the relatively novel quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) technique. For the first time, QCM-D enabled the detailed study of protein dynamics (i.e. kinetics, viscoelastic properties, overlayer structure, etc.) onto nanodiamond thin films having various surface chemistry and roughness. The dynamics of protein adsorption is found to be sensitive to surface chemistry at all stages of adsorption, but it is only sensitive to surface roughness during initial adsorption phases. Our understanding of the nanodiamond-biology interface is enhanced by this study, and it suggests that QCM-D is useful for the study of the surface chemistry of nanoparticle forms of inorganic materials. A second study concerns a novel surface functionalization scheme, based on carbene and azo-coupling chemistry, which has been recently introduced as a practical, facile method for modifying the surfaces of polymers. Using modern surface characterization techniques, it is demonstrated that a chemical linker can be attached to polystyrene surfaces using carbene-based chemistry, and that further chemical functionality can be added to this chemical linker via an azo-coupling reaction. In situ studies of protein dynamics at these interfaces were conducted using QCM-D, thus enabling a link between specific protein behaviour and the polymer surface chemical termination chemistry to be made. A third area of study of investigates the use of diamond electrodes as a bio-sensor for dopamine under physiological conditions. For these conditions, ascorbic acid interferes with the dopamine oxidation signal, in ways that render the two signals irresolvable. Various modifications are used in attempts to reduce this interference, including: small and large cathodic treatments, grafting of electro-active polymers, addition of carbon nanotubes, and hydrogen plasma treatment. Those modifications leading to the hydrogen-termination of diamond are shown to work the best. Notably, hydrogen plasma treatment effects the complete electrochemical separation of dopamine and ascorbic acid at a diamond electrode. This is the first time this has been accomplished without adding non-diamond materials to the diamond electrode surface.

Produtos de glicação avançada, carbamilação e estresse oxidativo contribuem como fatores de risco não tradicionais para a aterosclerose na doença renal crônica (DRC), em parte, por prejudicarem o metabolismo lipídico e por representarem um mecanismo de injúria memorizado ao longo do desenvolvimento da doença renal. A albumina sérica, isolada de animais com DRC, reduz a remoção de colesterol mediado por apoA-I e subfrações de HDL, prejudicando o fluxo de colesterol de macrófagos arteriais ao fígado por meio do transporte reverso de colesterol. Objetivo: Avaliou-se a influência do tratamento com N-acetilcisteína (NAC) em ratos com DRC sobre a concentração plasmática de produtos de oxidação e glicação avançada e o reflexo sobre os efeitos da albumina sérica sobre o efluxo de colesterol e o estresse de retículo endoplasmático em macrófagos. Métodos: Ratos Wistar com 2 meses de idade, pesando aproximadamente 200-250g foram submetidos à nefrectomia 5/6 e mantidos por 60 dias (grupo DRC) com ou sem tratamento com N-acetilcisteína na água (600mg/L), após o 7° dia de indução da DRC (grupo DRC + NAC). Animais controles foram falso-operados (grupo C) e um subgrupo submetido ao tratamento com NAC (C + NAC). No início e no final do estudo foram determinadas as concentrações plasmáticas de glicose, colesterol (CT), triglicérides (TG), ureia, creatinina e na urina, excreção urinária de proteína de 24 h. AGE totais, pentosidina, TBARS (marcador de peroxidação lipídica) e pressão arterial sistólica (PAS) foram determinados no final do estudo. A albumina sérica foi isolada por cromatografia rápida para separação de proteínas e purificada por extração alcoólica. Macrófagos J774 foram incubados por 18 h com as albuminas dos diferentes grupos experimentais para determinação do conteúdo dos receptores de HDL (ABCA-1 e ABCG-1) e de marcadores de estresse de retículo endoplasmático (chaperonas Grp 78, Grp94 e proteína dissulfeto isomerase, PDI) por imunolbot e efluxo de colesterol, mediado por apo A-I e HDL2. Para isto, as células foram previamente enriquecidas com LDL-acetilada e 14C-colesterol. Macrófagos foram também incubados isoladamente com concentrações crescentes de NAC para avaliação do conteúdo dos receptores de HDL. Resultados: Ao final do estudo, o peso corporal foi 10% menor no grupo DRC em comparação ao C (p=0,006). Esta alteração foi prevenida pelo tratamento com NAC. A PAS (mmHg) foi maior no grupo DRC (130 ± 3) em comparação ao grupo DRC+NAC (109±3; p=0,0004). Ureia, creatinina, CT, TG (mg/dL), proteinúria (mg/24 h), AGE total, pentosidina (unidades arbitrárias de fluorescência) e TBARS (nmol/mL) foram maiores nos grupos DRC em comparação ao grupo C (122 ± 8 vs. 41 ± 0,9 ; 0,9 ± 0,07 vs. 0,4 ± 0,03; 151 ± 6 vs. 76 ± 2,7; 83 ± 4 vs. 51,5 ± 3; 46 ± 2,5 vs. 14 ± 0,9; 32620 ± 673 vs. 21750 ± 960; 16700 ± 1370 vs. 5314 ± 129; 6,6 ± 0,5 vs. 2 ± 0,2, respectivamente) (p < 0,0001) e nos grupos DRC+NAC em comparação ao grupo C+NAC (91,4 ± 5 vs. 40 ± 0,9 ; 0,6 ± 0,02 vs. 0,3 ± 0,02; 126 ± 7,5 vs. 76 ± 2,6; 73 ± 6 vs. 68 ± 4; 51 ± 3,5 vs. 18,4 ± 1,5; 24720 ± 1114 vs. 20040 ± 700; 10080 ± 748 vs. 5050 ± 267; 4,5 ± 0,5 vs. 1,8 ± 0,2, respectivamente) (p < 0,0001). No grupo DRC + NAC, PAS, CT, ureia, creatinina, AGE total, pentosidina e TBARS foram, respectivamente, 17% (p=0,0004), 17% (p=0,02), 25% (p=0,02), 33% (p=0,06), 24% (p < 0,0001), 40% (p=0,0008), 28% (p=0,009) menores do que no grupo DRC. A glicemia foi maior nos grupos C + NAC (107+-4,6) e DRC + NAC (107+-2,6) em comparação ao C (96+-1,8) e DRC (98+-1,6), respectivamente. Macrófagos tratados com albumina-DRC apresentaram maior conteúdo de PDI (5 vezes; p=0,02 e 7 vezes p=0,02) e Grp94 (66 %; p =0,02 e 20 %; p=0,02) quando comparados aos tratados com albumina-C ou albumina-DRC + NAC, respectivamente. O conteúdo do receptor ABCA-1 foi menor 87% e 70% (p < 0,01) nos macrófagos tratados com albumina-C+NAC e albumina-DRC, respectivamente em comparação com albumina-C. O conteúdo de ABCG-1 foi, respectivamente, 4 e 7,5 vezes maior nos macrófagos tratados com albumina-C+NAC e albumina-DRC+NAC em comparação as respectivas situações sem tratamento. O efluxo de colesterol mediado por apo A-I foi 59 % e 70 % (p < 0,0001) menor nos macrófagos tratados com albumina-C+NAC e albumina-DRC, respectivamente em comparação a albumina-C. O efluxo de colesterol mediado pela HDL2 foi 52 % maior nos macrófagos tratados com albumina-C+NAC em comparação as células tratadas com albumina-C. Não houve diferença no conteúdo do receptor ABCA-1 nos macrófagos tratados com concentrações crescentes NAC por 8 h. No entanto, após 18 h, o ABCA-1 diminuiu 50 %, 69 % e 72 % nos macrófagos tratados respectivamente com 10 mM, 20 mM e 30 mM de NAC isoladamente em comparação aos macrófagos controles. O conteúdo de ABCG-1 nos macrófagos tratados com NAC, em 8 h e 18 h não sofreu alteração. Conclusão: A N-acetilcisteína reduz produtos de oxidação e glicação avançada no plasma de animais com DRC e previne o estresse de RE em macrófagos, induzido pela albumina isolada destes animais. Apesar de diminuir o conteúdo de ABCA-1 e o efluxo de colesterol mediado por apo A-I, a NAC aumenta o conteúdo de ABCG-1. Desta forma, a NAC pode contribuir para atenuar os efeitos deletérios da albumina modificada na DRC sobre o acúmulo lipídico em macrófagos, contribuindo para a prevenção da aterosclerose / Advanced glycation, carbamylation and oxidative stress c contribute to atherosclerosis in chronic kidney disease (CKD) as nontraditional risk factors. They impair lipid metabolism and promote a long last injury during the development of CKD. Serum albumin isolated from CKD-animals reduces cholesterol efflux mediated by apoa A-I and HDl subfractions, impairing the cholesterol flux from arterial wall macrophage to the the liver by the reverse cholesterol transport (RCT).Objective: In the present study it was analyzed the influence of N-acetylcysteine treatment in CKD-rats in plasma concentration of lipid peroxides and advanced glycation end products and the effect of serum albumin in macrophage cholesterol efflux and endoplasmic reticulum stress development. Methods: Two months male Wistar weighting 200-250g were submitted to a 5/6 nephrectomized maintained for 60 days (CKD group) treated or not with N-acetylcysteine in water (600 mg/L), after the seventh day of CKD induction (CKD+NAC group). Sham animals were false-operated (SHAM group) and a subgroup was treated with NAC (SHAM+NAC group). In the basal and final periods it was determined plasma concentration of glucose, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), urea, creatinine and 24h-urinary protein excretion (UPE). Total AGE, pentosidine, thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS) levels and systolic blood pressure (SBP) were measured at the final period only. Serum albumin was isolated by fast protein liquid chromatography and purified by alcoholic extraction. J774 macrophage were incubated for 18 h with albumin isolated from the experimental groups in order to determine the content of HDL receptors and markers of endoplasmic reticulum stress (Grp78, Grp94 and protein dissulfide isomerase, PDI) by immunioblot and cholesterol efflux mediated by apo A-I and HDL2. For this, cells were previously overloaded with acetylated LDL and 14C-cholesterol. Macrophage were also incubated with different concentrations of NAC alone in order to measure HDL-receptors and cholesterole efflux. Results: In the end of the protocol, body weight was 10% lower in CKD group in comparison to SHAM group (p=0.006). This change was preserved by treatment with NAC. SBP (mmHg) was higher in CKD group (130±3) in comparison to CKD+NAC (109±3; p=0.0004). Urea, creatinine, TC, TG (mg/dL), UPE (mg/24 h), total AGE, pentosidine (arbitrary units of fluorescence) and TBARS (nmol/mL) were higher in CKD group in comparison to SHAM (122±8 vs. 41 ± 0.9; 0.9 ± 0.07 vs. 0.4 ± 0.03; 151 ± 6 vs. 76±2.7; 83 ± 4 vs. 51.5 ± 3; 46 ± 2.5 vs. 14 ± 0.9; 32620 ± 673 vs. 21750 ± 960; 16700 ± 1370 vs. 5314 ± 129; 6.6 ± 0.5 vs. 2 ± 0.2, respectively) (p < 0.0001) and in CKD+NAC in comparison to C+NAC (91.4±5 vs. 40±0.9 ; 0.6±0.02 vs. 0.3 ± 0.02; 126±7.5 vs. 76 ± 2.6; 73±6 vs. 68±4; 51 ± 3.5 vs. 18.4±1.5; 24720 ± 1114 vs. 20040±700; 10080±748 vs. 5050 ± 267; 4.5±0.5 vs. 1.8±0.2, respectively) (p < 0.0001). In CKD+NAC group, SBP, TC, urea, creatinine, total AGE, pentosidine and TBARS were, respectively, 17 % (p=0.0004), 17 % (p=0.02), 25 % (p=0.02), 33 % (p=0.06), 24 % (p<0.0001), 40 % (p=0.0008), 28 % (p=0.009) lower than CKD group. Glycemia was higher in SHAM+NAC (107+-4.6) and CKD+NAC (107+-2.6) in comparison to SHAM (96+-1.8) and CKD group (98+-1.6), respectively. Macrophages treat with CKD-albumin presented higher content of PDI (5 times; p=0.02 e 7 times p=0.02) and Grp94 (66 %; p=0.02 e 20 %; p=0.02) when compared to SHAM-albumin and CKD+NAC-albumin- treated cells, respectively. ABCA-1 protein content was 87 % and 70 % (p < 0.01) lower in macrophages treated with SHAM+NAC-albumin and CKD-albumin, respectively compared with SHAM-albumin. ABCG-1 protein level was respectively 4 and 7.5 times higher in macrophages treated with SHAM+NAC-albumin and CKD+NAC-albumin in comparison to their respective controls without treatment. The cholesterol efflux mediated by apo A-I was 59 % and 70 % (p < 0.0001) lower in macrophages treated with SHAM+NAC-albumin and CKD-albumin, respectively, when compared to SHAM-albumin. The HDL2-mediated cholesterol efflux was 52 % higher in macrophages treated with SHAM+NAC-albumin compared to macrophages treated with SHAM-albumin. No difference was observed in the ABCA-1 protein level in macrophages treated with crescent concentrations of NAC alone for 8 h. Nonetheless, after 18 h, ABCA-1 was 50 %, 69 % and 72 % reduced in macrophages treated, respectively, with 10 mM, 20 mM and 30 mM NAC in comparison to control cells. ABCG-1 content in macrophages treated with NAC for 8 h and 18 h was not changed. Conclusion: NAC reduces plasma lipid peroxidation and AGE in CKD animals and prevents the endoplasmic reticulum stress induced by CKD-albumin in macrophages. Despite diminishing ABCA-1 and apo A-I-mediated cholesterol efflux, NAC increases ABCG-1. Then, NAC may contribute to attenuate the deleterious effects of the in vivo modified albumin on lipid accumulation in macrophages helping to prevent atherosclerosis in CKD

A glicação é uma reação não enzimática que ocorre entre proteínas e açúcares redutores e, é responsável pela formação de adultos e de ligações cruzadas entre proteínas, como por exemplo: a pentosidina, produto final de glicação avançada que se acumula em vários tecidos ao longo do tempo. A glicação é deletéria para o organismo e está associada a modificações estruturais em proteínas e alterações de suas funções específicas, tais como: atividade enzimática, capacidade de ligação e tempo de vida de proteínas, além de ser responsável pela produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROS). O mecanismo de formação da pentosidina envolve reações oxidativas e, uma das estratégias para minimizá-Ia é o aumento da atividade antioxidante nos tecidos. A pariparoba (Pothomorphe umbellata (L.) Miq) demonstrou atividade antioxidante in vitro e in vivo quando aplicada sobre a pele. Essa atividade foi atribuída ao 4-nerolidilcatecol (4-NC), que se mostrou 10 vezes mais potente que o &#945;-tocoferol. Os extratos de pariparoba também inibiram a lipoperoxidação espontânea da pele em camundongos sem pelo. Neste trabalho empregou-se o modelo de glicação de albumina de soro bovino (BSA) frente à D-ribose, com avaliação da fluorescência produzida pela pentosidina formada na reação. Avaliou-se igualmente a atividade do 4-NC em diferentes concentrações sobre a reação de glicação da BSA em presença de D-ribose após 24 horas, empregando-se a aminoguanidina como controle positivo. Nas condições experimentais o 4-NC não foi capaz de inibir a reação de glicação, ao contrário da aminoguanidina. Foi também utilizado modelo para avaliação da propriedade contrátil de fibroblastos em matriz tridimensional de gel de colágeno, glicado e não glicado com D-ribose. O 4-NC na concentração de 100 &#181;M permitiu a manutenção da propriedade contrátil de fibroblastos em gel colágeno glicado. Estudos de glicação em maiores períodos de tempo devem ser realizados visando a confirmar a possível atividade anti-glicação deste composto. / Glycation is a non enzymatic reaction which occurs between proteins and reductor sugars, responsible for the formation of adducts and crosslinkers between proteins, such as, pentosidine, an advanced glycation end-product (AGE) which accumulates in many tissues during aging. AGEs accumulation is deleterious to the body and is associated with structural modifications in proteins and imbalance in their specific functions, such as: enzymatic activity, binding capacity, protein turnover and also responsible for the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The mechanism of pentosidine formation involves oxidative reactions. One of the strategies to reduce pentosidine formation is by increasing antioxidant activity in tissues. Pariparoba (Pothomorphe umbellata (L.) Miq. has showed antioxidant activity in vitro and in vivo when applied on the skin. This activity was attributed to 4-nerolydilcatechol (4-NC), which is 10 times more potent than &#945;-tocopherol. Extracts of Pariparoba also inhibited the spontaneous lipid peroxidation in the skin of hairless mice. In this work, the bovine serum albumin (BSA) model for glycation with D-ribose, evaluated by pentosidine fluorescence spectroscopy was employed. The activity of 4¬NC was evaluated in different concentrations in this model after 24 hours. Aminoguanidine was used as positive control. In this experimental condition, 4-NC was not capable to inhibit the BSA glycation. We also evaluated the contractile properties of fibroblasts on tridimensional matriz of collagen gel glycated or not with D-ribose. 4-NC (100 &#181;M) was able to keep the contractile capacity of fibroblasts in glycated collagen. Studies of glycation in longer periods of time should be made in order to further evaluate the possible anti-glycation activity of this compound.

In this thesis some multivariate spectroscopic methods for the analysis of solutions are proposed. Spectroscopy and multivariate data analysis form a powerful combination for obtaining both quantitative and qualitative information and it is shown how spectroscopic techniques in combination with chemometric data evaluation can be used to obtain rapid, simple and efficient analytical methods. These spectroscopic methods consisting of spectroscopic analysis, a high level of automation and chemometric data evaluation can lead to analytical methods with a high analytical capacity, and for these methods, the term high-capacity analysis (HCA) is suggested. It is further shown how chemometric evaluation of the multivariate data in chromatographic analyses decreases the need for baseline separation. The thesis is based on six papers and the chemometric tools used are experimental design, principal component analysis (PCA), soft independent modelling of class analogy (SIMCA), partial least squares regression (PLS) and parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC). The analytical techniques utilised are scanning ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, diode array detection (DAD) used in non-column chromatographic diode array UV spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) and fluorescence spectroscopy. The methods proposed are exemplified in the analysis of pharmaceutical solutions and serum proteins. In Paper I a method is proposed for the determination of the content and identity of the active compound in pharmaceutical solutions by means of UV-Vis spectroscopy, orthogonal signal correction and multivariate calibration with PLS and SIMCA classification. Paper II proposes a new method for the rapid determination of pharmaceutical solutions by the use of non-column chromatographic diode array UV spectroscopy, i.e. a conventional HPLC-DAD system without any chromatographic column connected. In Paper III an investigation is made of the ability of a control sample, of known content and identity to diagnose and correct errors in multivariate predictions something that together with use of multivariate residuals can make it possible to use the same calibration model over time. In Paper IV a method is proposed for simultaneous determination of serum proteins with fluorescence spectroscopy and multivariate calibration. Paper V proposes a method for the determination of chromatographic peak purity by means of PCA of HPLC-DAD data. In Paper VI PARAFAC is applied for the decomposition of DAD data of some partially separated peaks into the pure chromatographic, spectral and concentration profiles.