Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Accurate estimation of alcohol price elasticity is important for policy analysis – e.g.., determining optimal taxes and projecting revenues generated from proposed tax changes. Several approaches to specifying and estimating the price elasticity of demand for alcohol can be found in the literature. There are two keys to policy-relevant specification and estimation of alcohol price elasticity. First, the underlying demand model should take account of alcohol consumption decisions at the extensive margin – i.e., individuals' decisions to drink or not – because the price of alcohol may impact the drinking initiation decision and one's decision to drink is likely to be structurally different from how much they drink if they decide to do so (the intensive margin). Secondly, the modeling of alcohol demand elasticity should yield both theoretical and empirical results that are causally interpretable. The elasticity estimates obtained from the existing two-part model takes into account the extensive margin, but are not causally interpretable. The elasticity estimates obtained using aggregate-level models, however, are causally interpretable, but do not explicitly take into account the extensive margin. There currently exists no specification and estimation method for alcohol price elasticity that both accommodates the extensive margin and is causally interpretable. I explore additional sources of bias in the extant approaches to elasticity specification and estimation: 1) the use of logged (vs. nominal) alcohol prices; and 2) implementation of unnecessarily restrictive assumptions underlying the conventional two-part model. I propose a new approach to elasticity specification and estimation that covers the two key requirements for policy relevance and remedies all such biases. I find evidence of substantial divergence between the new and extant methods using both simulated and the real data. Such differences are profound when placed in the context of alcohol tax revenue generation.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The objective of this research is to examine the development of the California alcohol outlets over time and the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and densities of the alcohol outlets. Two types of advanced analyses were done after the usual preliminary description of data. Firstly, fixed and random effects linear regression were used for the county panel data across time (1945-2010) with a dummy variable added to capture the change in law regarding limitations on alcohol outlets density. Secondly, a Bayesian spatio-temporal Poisson regression of the census tract panel data was conducted to capture recent availability of population characteristics affecting outlet density. The spatial Conditional Autoregressive model was embedded in the Poisson regression to detect spatial dependency of unexplained variance of alcohol outlet density. The results show that the alcohol outlets density reduced under the limitation law over time. However, it was no more effective in reducing the growth of alcohol outlets after the limitation was modified to be more restrictive. Poorer, higher vacancy rate and lower percentage of Black neighborhoods tend to have higher alcohol outlet density (numbers of alcohol outlets to population ratio) for both on-sale general and off-sale general. Other characteristics like percentage of Hispanics, percentage of Asians, percentage of younger population and median income of adjacency neighbors were associated with densities of on-sale general and off sale general alcohol outlets. Some regions like the San Francisco Bay area and the Greater Los Angeles area have more alcohol outlets than the predictions of neighborhood characteristics included in the model.

Thesis (D. Tech.) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, 2008 / The purpose of this study was to evaluate brewing and consumption practices and to screen for micro-organisms and mycotoxins associated with traditional beer produced and consumed in the marginal urban settlements of the city of Kimberley in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. The survey study revealed that traditional beer is no longer being brewed for traditional purposes only, as was the case in the past, but rather for commercial gain. Both brewers and consumers, however, appeared to be largely unaware of disease-causing micro-organisms present on the hands or bodies of handlers that can be transferred to the beverage during the handling process, and were seemingly not conversant with regard to the effects of hazardous ingredients sometimes incorporated during the brewing process. Unemployment and a lack of education emerged as pivotal factors related to the production of traditional beer and the ignorance of the associated safety thereof. The survey further indicated that although facilities such as the availability of potable water (taps in yards) and flushing toilets were sometimes in place, other facilities such as basins with hot running water were often not available. In commercially produced and homebrewed traditional beer the mean counts for total coliforms and Staphylococcus spp. were circa 105 cfu.ml-1 whereas the TVC (Total Viable Counts) and total fungi counts were 106 and 107 cfu.ml-1 respectively. The total coliforms and Staphylococcus spp. counts for homebrewed traditional beer were approximately one log-phase higher than the commercial version. The counts in the homebrewed beer probably originated from contamination during handling, while in the commercial product contamination originated either in the raw ingredients or during postprocessing and consumption. Apart from staphylococci, considerable numbers of total coliforms indicating faecal contamination were noted. A rapid, easy, reliable and accurate technique that could be used to quantify the level of mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol and citrinin) in the beer was developed through validation of the ELISA Ridascreen methodology. Using this method, the deoxynivalenol (DON) level in the beer samples was found to exceed the recommended levels suggested by the European Union, while citrinin levels in the samples varied between 35.6 ppb and 942.2 ppb. In the case of citrinin there were statistically significant differences between spring, summer and winter samples, confirming the seasonal impact on fungal growth and consequent mycotoxin production. An R2-value of 0.409 was noted between DON and citrinin, indicating a weak positive association. Finally, an awareness programme in the format of a poster with accompanying subscripts was developed to address issues of safety and hygiene of traditional beer in the study area. The poster utilises animatedstyle colour images of selected practices that need to be addressed, accompanied by slogans summarising the particular image in English, Afrikaans and Setswana. It is envisaged that, as part of a comprehensive awareness programme, the poster will contribute greatly to the quality, safety and promotion of traditional beer in the area.

PhD (Food Science) / Department of Food Science and Technology / Finger millet (FM) [Eleusine coracana] is an underutilised cereal grain used as a food source in South Africa. Increased research interest in FM has span over the years owing to its unique nutritional and bioactive composition. Following the recent interest in natural curative substances over their synthetic counterparts in the treatment of food dependent diseases, FM has shown potential nutraceutical effects. Some important health effects like antidiabetic, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties have been reported in recent trials with FM. In view of the increasing utilisation and application of FM in the region of Thulamela Municipality, Vhembe District of South Africa, two common indigenous FM varieties (brown and dark brown) were obtained and analysed for their physicochemical properties, levels of minerals, phytic acid, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities. For this process, malted non-alcoholic beverages were produced and analysed for their physicochemical properties, levels of phenolic compounds, and total phenolics and antioxidant activities. FM grains were soaked, germinated and kilned at an interval of 24 h for 96 h, using sorghum as an external reference. Mineral composition of the FM and sorghum samples were analysed using an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS), and atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS). Identification and quantification of phenolic compounds were performed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS). All experiments were performed in triplicate except for the UPLC-MS analysis of the malted non-alcoholic beverages that was done in duplicate. Data were analysed by one way analysis of variance, and the mean values were separated by Duncan’s multiple comparison test using SPSS version 24.0. Data showed that the FM varieties were rich in macro- and micro- or trace elements. The macro-elements calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus and sulphur were found in high amounts ranging from 1597.37 mg/ kg – 6775.03 mg/ kg; iron, zinc, strontium and silicon were found in significant amounts in the range 21.47 mg/ kg – 55.67 iii mg/ kg, copper and boron were found in low amounts (2.2 mg/ kg – 7.7 mg/ kg), along with selenium and cobalt (0.02 mg/ kg – 0.05 mg/ kg). Heavy metals, barium and aluminium were found in the FM varieties. Varietal difference was found to play an important role in the mineral content of the grains during malting. Malting for 24 h reduced mineral content except for sodium. Beyond 48 h of malting, mineral content increased, particularly, for 96 h in FM grain malt. Significant (p < 0.05) increases in the mineral content of FM varieties were noted at 48 h and 96 h of malting. Increase occurred at 72 h of malting for potassium, iron and boron. Malting did not have any effect on the manganese content of the dark brown FM; however, it increased the manganese content at 48 h of malting for brown FM. Malting for 96 h significantly (p < 0.05) reduced sodium content. Consecutive decrease in phytic acid content of the grains was not recorded with durations in malting time. Although statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed, malting did not result in too much change in the physicochemical properties of the grains. Several flavonoids, catechin, epicatechin, quercetin, taxifolin, and hesperitin were isolated, whilst protocatechuic acid was the only phenolic acid detected in the unmalted and malted FM. Increases in catechin, epicatechin and protocatechuic acid were observed for 72 and 96 h malt of brown FM with similar observations recorded for sorghum. Complete loss of taxifolin, catechin, and hesperitin were noted with malting time. FM grains exhibited 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2, 2՛-azinobis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging action and iron reducing activities. Increased iron reducing activity alongside ABTS radical scavenging activity was recorded with malting time. A fermentation-time dependent decrease in the pH of the non-alcoholic beverages, with a corresponding increase in sugar content were recorded. A similar decrease was also recorded for the viscosities of the beverages. The FM malt beverages were found to contain a higher amount of citric acid compared to the sorghum malt beverage. A decrease in the citric acid content with fermentation time was noted in the grain malt beverages fermented with Lactobacillus fermentum, particularly for the iv FM beverage. The phenolic compounds detected in the FM malt beverages fermented with the grain microbial flora and Lactobacillus fermentum were protocatechuic acid, catechin and epicatechin. Taxifolin and kaempferol along with the earlier mentioned compounds were detected in the sorghum malt beverage. Catechin was found in higher amount compared to other phenolic compounds in the FM and sorghum malt beverages. FM malt beverages were found to contain a higher amount of total phenolics compared to the beverage prepared from sorghum malt. Fermentation with the grains’ microbial flora and L. fermentum resulted in reduced total phenolics of FM and sorghum malt beverages, particularly after 24 h of fermentation. A fermentation-time dependent decrease in total phenolics of FM beverages fermented with L. fermentum was noted. Fermentation within 24 - 48 h using the grain microbial flora showed higher total individual phenolic compounds for the dark brown FM and sorghum, compared to other fermentation periods. Fermentation of the beverages for 24 h retained a higher amount of the total phenolics compared to other fermentation periods, especially for the L. fermentum beverages. Reduced total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the beverages were noted at 24 h of fermentation for the two microbial sources. Significant (p < 0.05) increases in total phenolics were observed within 72 – 96 h of fermentation of the brown FM malt beverage with the grains’ microbial flora. Fermentation for 72 h and 96 h with L. fermentum increased the total phenolic content of the brown FM. Increase in total flavonoid content (TFC) of brown FM malt beverage was noted at 72 h fermentation for both microbial sources. Unlike with L. fermentum, no significant (p > 0.05) change in TFC was observed for the dark brown FM beverage after 24 h fermentation with the grains’ microbial flora. Beverages exhibited DPPH, ABTS radical scavenging action and iron reducing activities, which were significantly (p < 0.05) reduced at 96 h fermentation for both microbial sources. The 24 h fermented beverage retained a higher amount of total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and had higher antioxidant activity compared to other fermentation periods for both microbial sources. The study shows that FM is a rich source of essential minerals and v phenolic compounds, and demonstrates that 72 to 96 h of malting has a positive effect on minerals and certain phenolic compounds over the 48 h malting period widely used for preparation of FM malt. The presence of hesperitin in FM grain was established. A new method was developed for the production of FM non-alcoholic beverage with measurable amounts of health-promoting compounds. An ideal fermentation period (24 h) for FM malt non-alcoholic beverage production with enhanced health-promoting compounds, using Lactobacillus fermentum was demonstrated. Fermentation limit (96 h) for production of FM malt beverage using either the grain microbial flora or L. fermentum was confirmed. These findings provide a rationale for increased utilisation of FM as a functional food grain, and its use as malt in production of non-alcoholic beverage for health promotion and wellness. / NRF