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The stable free radical polymerization methodology for production of controlled macromolecules was investigated using a novel monomer, 2-vinylnaphthalene. Initial polymerizations resulted in molecular weight distributions typical of conventional free radical polymerization techniques (>2.0). Manipulation of the initiator concentration and the molar ratio of initiator to nitroxide demonstrated no significant control over the resulting polymer products. Analysis of the polymerization kinetics for a 2-vinylnaphthalene polymerization performed in the presence and absence of the free radical initiator revealed identical monomer consumption profiles as well as pseudo first order kinetics indicating a significant degree of the thermal polymerization was occurring at the polymerization temperature (130°C). Comparison of the thermal polymerization propensity of 2-vinylnaphthalene and styrene revealed an increased tendency for 2-vinylnapthahlene to undergo thermal polymerization. Styrene is considered highly active in its propensity to thermally polymerize. However, an Arhenius analysis using in situ FTIR was employed to determine the activation energy for the thermal polymerization of styrene and 2-vinylnaphthalene. The 2-vinylnaphthalene activation energy for thermal polymerization was determined for the first time to be almost 30 kJ/mol less than styrene. A novel modified Mayo mechanism was proposed for the 2-vinylnaphthalene thermal initiation mechanism. Moreover, this thermal initiation was employed to initiate nitroxide mediated polymerizations of styrene. This first use of a 2-vinylnaphthalene initiating system resulted in polystyrene with a large macrocyclic initiating fragment. The presence of the initiating moiety was studied using both UV-Vis spectroscopy and 1H NMR spectroscopy. The extension of stable free radical polymerization to the acrylate monomer family was examined using a novel nitroxide mediator, N-tert-butyl-N-[1-diethylphosphono-(2,2-dimethylpropyl)] nitroxide (DEPN). The synthesis of DEPN was monitored using in situ FTIR spectroscopy to determine optimum reaction conditions. The purified nitroxide was subsequently employed in the synthesis of various block and random acrylate copolymers. The production of a unique amphiphilic block copolymer consisting of acrylic sequences was achieved. Poly(t-butyl acrylate-b-2ethylhexyl acrylate-b-t-butyl acrylate) was synthesized using the SFRP process. The t-butyl functionalities were subsequently removed in a post-polymerization acid catalyzed hydrolysis. The effect of steric bulk and electronic factors on the resulting SFRP process was also investigated and revealed similar polymerization kinetics for various alkyl acrylates. However, addition of a hydroxyl containing monomer, 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, resulted in an increase in the polymerization rate up to 2 times. The rate enhancement was attributed to hydrogen bonding effects and this was confirmed using the unprecedented addition of dodecanol, which also demonstrated a significant rate enhancement. Block copolymers were also achieved using a novel difunctional nitroxide synthesized from 4-hydroxy TEMPO and 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate. The identity of the nitroxide was confirmed using mass spectrometry and 1H NMR. The dinitroxide was used in the polymerization of styrene and subsequently used to produce symmetric ABA triblock copolymers with t-butyl styrene using a unique two-step polymerization route. In addition, the dinitroxide demonstrated an increased tendency for decomposition due to the complex mediation equilibrium. The decomposition was studied using GPC to evaluate the decomposition effects on the polymerization. Results of the research efforts presented herein are written as individual research reports with contributing authors and pertinent literature reviews presented at the beginning of each chapter. / Ph. D.

La preuve de concept d‟une approche theranostique pour la Maladie de Alzheimer basée sur les nanotechnologies a été explorée. Des nouvelles nanoparticules polymeriques fluorescentes on été conçus, et leur internalisation et aptitude à traverser un nouveau modèle in vitro de barrière hémato-encéphalique humaine on été étudiées en détails. Une petite librairie de nanoparticules polymerique a été préparés, et leur capacité de capturer le peptide β-Amyloïde1-42, considéré comme une des principales causes de la dégénérescence neuronale, a été évaluées et quantifiées en utilisant une méthode expressément conçus. / The proof of concept of an original nanotechnology-based theranostic approach for Alzheimer‟s disease has been explored. Novel fluorescently tagged nanoparticles have been designed and employed for internalization and transcytosis studies across a recently developed human in vitro blood-brain barrier model. A small library of polymeric nanoparticles have been designed and their ability to capture the Amyloid β1-42 peptide, considered one of the causes of the Alzheimer‟s disease, has been investigated and quantified using an on purpose designed method.

A bactéria fitopatogênica Xylella fastidiosa é o agente etiológico da Clorose Variegada dos Citros (CVC), que causa perdas anuais estimadas em US$ 100 milhões no Brasil. Durante o processo infeccioso, a geração extracelular de espécies ativas de oxigênio é um dos principais mecanismos de defesa da planta contra o patógeno. Em contrapartida, para se defender do estresse oxidativo imposto pelo hospedeiro, os fitopatógenos possuem mecanismos de defesa que incluem enzimas antioxidantes, como as peroxirredoxinas, alquil hidroperóxido redutase subunidade C (AhpC) e proteína comigratória com bacterioferritina (Bcp). As peroxirredoxinas são proteínas que utilizam suas cisteínas ativas para catalisar a redução de hidroperóxidos. Por análise proteômica, os produtos dos genes ahpc e bcp foram identificados no extrato celular protéico de X. fastidiosa (Smolka e col., 2003). Com o intuito de caracterizar funcional e estruturalmente as proteínas AhpC e Bcp de X. fastidiosa, clonamos e expressamos seus respectivos genes em Escherichia coli e purificamos as proteínas por cromatografia de afinidade a níquel. As proteínas recombinantes apresentaram atividade dependente de tiól de redução de peróxido de hidrogênio e hidroperóxidos orgânicos. A atividade peroxidase da AhpC e Bcp são dependentes, respectivamente, de alquil hidroperóxido redutase subunidade F (AhpF) e do sistema tiorredoxina. Paradoxalmente, a flavoproteína AhpF possui atividade NAD(P)H oxidase, que resulta na produção de peróxido de hidrogênio. As constantes de segunda ordem da reação das proteínas com peróxido de hidrogênio (da ordem de 107 M-1.s-1), determinadas pelo ensaio de cinética competitiva com peroxidase de raiz forte, indicam que ambas possuem atividades peroxidase equivalentes às apresentadas por glutationa peroxidases dependentes de selênio e catalases, ao contrário do descrito na literatura. Por SDS-PAGE não-redutor e pela quantificação de cisteínas livres por DTNB, verificamos que as proteínas possuem mecanismos catalíticos distintos: AhpC é uma 2-Cys Prx típica (com formação de ponte dissulfeto intermolecular), enquanto Bcp é uma 2-Cys Prx atípica (com formação de ponte dissulfeto intramolecular). Para AhpC, a atividade catalítica envolve as cisteínas conservadas (Cys-47 e Cys-165), em contraste, apenas através de estudos de mutação sítio-dirigida e espectrometria de massas conseguimos identificar os resíduos de cisteínas envolvidos na atividade catalítica da Bcp (Cys-47 e Cys-83). A caracterização estrutural de AhpC por cromatografia de exclusão molecular e espalhamento dinâmico de luz mostram que a proteína nativa é um decâmero estável, independentemente do estado de oxidação de suas cisteínas. A caracterização da estrutura cristalográfica de Bcp C47S, inédita para 2-Cys Prx atípicas que possuem as cisteínas ativas separadas por 35 aminoácidos, indica que a proteína possui o enovelamento característico das peroxirredoxinas e que as cisteínas ativas estão localizadas a uma distância média de 12,4 Å. Baseado em dicroísmo circular, apresentamos dados que indicam que a aproximação das cisteínas deve envolver um significativo rearranjo estrutural, que provavelmente se inicia com a formação do intermediário ácido sulfênico na cisteína peroxidásica (Cys-47). Assim, conseguimos elucidar o papel catalítico dessas proteínas, bem como identificar seus sistemas redutores, obtendo informações que podem ser relevantes para o entendimento do mecanismo da patogenicidade da X. fastidiosa. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho podem contribuir para o desenvolvimento de novas técnicas de controle de praga para a doença CVC em citrus e outras que envolvam a bactéria X. fastidiosa. / The phytopathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa is the etiological agent of Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC) that causes losses of about 100 millions dollars per year in Brazil. During infection, reactive oxygen species play a central role in plant pathogen defense. To survive under oxidative stress imposed by the host, microorganisms express antioxidant proteins, including the peroxiredoxins alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit C (AhpC) and bacterioferritin comigratory protein (Bcp). Peroxiredoxins are peroxidases, which rely on an activated cysteine residue to catalyze the reduction of hydroperoxides. By proteome analysis, Smolka et al. (2003) identified the products of ahpc and bcp genes present in whole cell extract of X. fastidiosa. To characterize the function and structure of AhpC and Bcp protein, their genes were cloned in Escherichia coli and the corresponding proteins purified by nickel affinity chromatography. Recombinant proteins presented thiol-dependent peroxidase activity against hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides. AhpC and Bcp peroxidase activities are dependent on alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit F (AhpF), and on thioredoxin system, respectively. Paradoxically, AhpF flavoenzyme possesses hydrogen peroxide-forming oxidase activity. Contrary to classical assumptions, competitive kinetics employing horseradish peroxidase assays showed that the second-order rate constants of AhpC and Bcp reaction with hydrogen peroxide are in the order of 107 M-1.s-1, as fast as the activity of selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidases and catalases. Non-reducing SDS-PAGE and cysteine quantification using DTNB indicated different peroxidasic mechanisms: AhpC is a typical 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (with intermolecular disulfide bond formation), while Bcp is an atypical 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (with intramolecular disulfide bond formation). In contrast to the well-conserved AhpC cysteines responsible for the peroxidase activity (Cys-47 and Cys-165), only through site-specific mutagenesis and mass spectrometry we could identified the cysteine residues involved in the Bcp peroxidase activity (Cys-47 and Cys-83). Structural characterization by size exclusion chromatography and dynamic light scattering revealed that AhpC native protein forms stable and redox state independent decamers. The crystal structure of Bcp C47S, the first 2-Cys Prx with a 35-residue between the active cysteines ever characterized, shows that protein contains the common fold of peroxiredoxins and that active cysteines lies ~12.4 Å away one from the other. Based on circular dichroism, we presented data indicating that disulfide bond formation may require significant conformational changes, which probably is triggered by the peroxidatic cysteine oxidation to sulfenic acid. In conclusion, we elucidated the catalytic mechanisms and reduction systems of AhpC and Bcp proteins that may help to understand the pathogenicity mechanism of X. fastidiosa. These results can contribute to the development of plague control methods against X. fastidiosa.

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Synthese von Pincer-Ligandenvor-läufern mit fluorierten Alkylketten –(CH2)2Rf6 (Rf6 = C6F13) an Sauerstoff- bzw. Phosphorhaftatomen. Darüber hinaus stehen die Bildung hochfluorierter Lithium-, Palladium-, Ruthenium- sowie Aluminium-Pincer-Komplexe und die Reaktivitäts-studien für diese neuartigen Komplexe im Fokus. Für vergleichende Untersuchungen war ebenso die Synthese der analogen, nicht fluorierten Verbindungen von Interesse. Eine Mischung aus in situ hergestelltem (NC5H3)-1,3-(CH2P((CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)2 (13) und [Ru(2Me-C3H4)2(cod)] kann die Dehydrogenierung von Cyclooctan bei vergleichsweise niedrigen Temperaturen von 80 °C katalysieren. Interessant ist die je nach Lösungsmittel unterschiedliche Produktbildung. Die Lithium- und Aluminiumkomplexe [Li(C6H3-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)] (21), [Li(C6H3 2,6 (CH2OCH3)2)] (22), [Al((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)(CH3)2] (28), [Al((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2OCH3)2)I2] (29), [Al((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)I2] (31) wurden erfolgreich synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Mittels [Al((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)I2] (31) konnten diverse aromatische Verbindungen wie Benzol, Toluol oder Pentafluorbenzol dehydrogenierend gekuppelt werden. Weiterhin wurden die Palladiumkomplexe [Pd(Cl)((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)] (34) und [Pd(NCCH3)((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)][PF6] (36), [Pd(Cl)((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2OCH3)2] (37) und [Pd(NCCH3)((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2OCH3)2][PF6] (38) hergestellt und charakterisiert. / The current thesis is concerned with the syntheses of pincer ligand precursors with fluorinated alkyl chains –(CH2)2Rf6 (Rf6 = C6F13), the so called „ponytails“, at oxygen or phosphorous donor atoms. Furthermore, this work focuses on the formation of highly fluorinated lithium, palladium, ruthenium or alumina pincer complexes and considering reactivity studies of these novel compounds. For comparative investigations the syntheses of the analog non-fluorinated compounds was of great interest. A mixture of in situ synthesized (NC5H3)-1,3-(CH2P((CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)2 (13) and [Ru(2Me-C3H4)2(cod)] catalyses the dehydrogenation of cyclooctane at relatively low temperatures of 80 °C. Depending on the used solvent cyclooctene or cyclooctatriene can be received as the single product, respectively. The lithium and alumina complexes [Li(C6H3-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)] (21), [Li(C6H3 2,6 (CH2OCH3)2)] (22), [Al((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)(CH3)2] (28), [Al((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2OCH3)2)I2] (29), and [Al((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)I2] (31) were synthesized and characterized succesfully. With the complex [Al((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)I2] (31) a diversity of aromatic compounds like benzene, toluene or pentafluorobenzene can be coupled after dehydrogenation. Moreover, the palladium complexes [Pd(Cl)((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)] (34), [Pd(NCCH3)((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2O(CH2)2(CF2)5CF3)2)][PF6] (36), [Pd(Cl)((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2OCH3)2] (37) and [Pd(NCCH3)((C6H3)-2,6-(CH2OCH3)2][PF6] (38) were synthesized and characterized.

Ligands of the human monoamine transporters encompass a wide range of both illicit and therapeutic drugs that act upon neural circuitry related to reward, motivation, and the processing of salient stimuli. The present study utilizes two methods for analyzing transporter substrates and inhibitors in order to characterize activity and assess potency. The first measures transient changes in intracellular calcium as a surrogate for transporter activity by harnessing the electrical coupling of monoamine transporters and L-type calcium channels. This is used to analyze novel chimera of the strong hDAT inhibitors methylphenidate and 𝛼-PPP in order to assess the contribution of specific moieties to potency. The observed reduction in potency suggests that methylphenidate may bind to the transporter in a manner distinct from 𝛼-PPP, as chimera would otherwise be expected to show similar activity to parent compounds. These results highlight the importance of 𝛼-carbon substituents and the relatively small contribution of beta-carbon groups to inhibitor potency at hDAT, while the lack of activity at hSERT suggests potency is not strongly influenced by beta-carbon or N-alkyl substituents. In order to further characterize drug-transporter interaction, a method was developed to analyze the kinetics of binding and unbinding using both known and novel hNET ligands, including a series of N-alkyl derivatives of 4-methylamphetamine. The study emphasizes the importance of both association and dissociation kinetics to affinity and sets up a methodological framework with two ways for determining Kd, with notable advantages over current models. The results indicate that lengthening the N-alkyl chain of 4-methylamphetamine leads to a decrease in potency and a shift in activity from substrate to blocker, with the results of N-propyl 4-methylamphetamine in particular indicating the potential existence of multiple low-affinity binding sites, each with distinct on and off kinetics. The implications of these results help elucidate the mechanism of action of transporter ligands and set up a framework for future studies that can more specifically classify the interaction between transporters and inhibitors or releasing agents.

Bilayers formed by molecules that possess long alkyl hydrophobic tails are ubiquitous in the natural world manifesting both in biological systems as well as in chemistry. The lipid bilayer is an integral feature of cell membranes of living systems with functions that are of critical importance to the life of the cell. Long chain amphiphilic surfactant molecules can be introduced within the interlamellar region of layered inorganic host lattices to form anchored alkyl chainbilayerswithinthegalleries.Theintercalatedbilayerbearsastriking resemblance to lipid bilayers. However, unlike lipid bilayers where individual molecules can undergo lateral diffusion and also flip-flop between layers the anchored bilayer is characterized by the total absence of translational mobility. The degrees of freedom of the alkyl chains of the anchored bilayer are restricted to changes in conformation. This thesis describes a detailed investigation of the anchored bilayer formed by the intercalation of the anionic surfactant dodecyl sulphate (DDS) in a layered solid, Mg-Al Layered Double Hydroxide(Mg-AlLDH) using both experimental measurements and Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations (Chapter 2). The thesis is organized as two parts. The first (Chapters 2 -4) deals with the anchored bilayer in the condensed phase -the conditions for the formation of the bilayer arrangement of the intercalated surfactant chains and the conformation and dynamics of the alkyl chains of the surfactant in the galleries of the layered solid. The surfactant intercalated Mg-AlLDH-DDS may be delaminated in nonpolar solvents to give colloidal dispersions of individual Mg-Al LDH sheets with the DDS surfactant chains remaining tethered to the inorganic sheets(Scheme 1).The second part of thesis(Chapters 5 -9)describe studies on the dispersions of the Mg-AlLDH-DDS in toluene. A summary of the results of the of the investigations of the anchored bilayer, formed by the intercalation of DDS ions in Mg-Al LDH, in the condensed and the dispersed phases is presented in the concluding chapter(Chapter10). Layered Double Hydroxides(LDH) are insulating lamellar solids of the general chemical formula[M’(1-x) Mx(OH)2], where M’ is a divalent metal ion and M a trivalent ion. Their structure may be derived from that of Brucite, Mg(OH)2, by isomorphous substitution of apart of the Mg2+ by trivalent ions like Al3+ with electrical neutrality maintained by interlamellar exchangeable ions. The studies reported in this thesis are on an Mg-Al LDH,Mg(1−x)Alx(OH)2, x ranging from 0.17 to 0.37. Dodecyl sulphate surfactant ions have been ion-exchange intercalated in Mg-AlLDH (Chapter 3). By varying the Mg-Al ratio, differing packing densities of the surfactant chains in the interlamellar space of the Mg-Al LDH-DDS are realized. At high packing densities the alkyl chains of the intercalated dodecyl sulphate ions anchored on opposing Mg-Al LDH sheets are arranged as bilayers while at lower packing densities the surfactant chains form a monolayer with the chains oriented flat in the galleries. This composition driven monolayer to bilayer transformation in the surfactant intercalated Mg-AlLDH-DDS is also reproduced by MD simulations. The simulations also indicate that there are profound differences in the factors that decide the arrangement of the surfactant chains. In the bilayer arrangement it is dispersive van der Waals interactions between the chains in opposing layers that is responsible for the cohesive energy of the solid whereas at lower packing densities, where a monolayer arrangement is favored, Coulomb interactions between the positively charged Mg-Al LDH sheets and the negatively charged head-group of the DDS anion dominate. The conformation and dynamics of the alkyl chains of the intercalated surfactant chains in both the monolayer and bilayer arrangements as well as the effect of packing density on these parameters is reported in Chapter 4. The conformation was studied using spectroscopic techniques, infra-red, Raman and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) while the dynamics by Variable Contact Time Cross Polarization Magic Angle Spinning(VCT -CPMAS) and2DWidelineSeparation(2DWiSe)NMR techniques. The results showed the expected trends; the concentration of gauche defects and the dynamics of the chains increase with decreasing packing density. There is, however a sharp increase in the gauche concentration and conformational mobilities of the intercalated surfactant chains associated with the bilayer to monolayer transformation. The results of the MD simulations, too, reflect these trends. The second part of thesis describes the delamination of the intercalated anchored bilayer (Mg-AlLDH-DDS) in non-polar solvents. Delamination results in a colloidal dispersion Of the anchored bilayer, isolated Mg-AlLDH sheets with the DDS chains tethered to them, as neutral nanosheets of nanometer thickness and micron size. With increasing concentration of the anchored bilayers in the solvent a gel state is realized. The sol to gel transformation of the dispersions of the anchored bilayer in toluene has been investi-gated. Frequency dependent rheology measurements (Chapter6) were used to investigate the visco-elastic properties of the dispersions and Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) measurements(Chapter 7) to understand the structure and shape of the nanosheets. The rheology experiments showed that the dispersions irrespective of their concentrations showed shear thinning. The SAXS results indicate a tactoid structure of the dispersions as well as in the gel phase. At higher concentrations, the X-ray scattering curves indicated that the layers stack loosely with an interlamellar space of ~ 39 Å , a value much larger than the interlayer lattice spacing of solid Mg-AlLDH-DDS( ~ 27 Å). The nature of interactions between solvent molecules and the anchored DDS chains were probed by 1Hand 2H NMR measurements(Chapter8). A clear association between the toluene molecules and the alkyl chains of the anchored surfactant was observed. 2D NOESY experiments established that there are toluene molecules in close proximity that interact with the methyl tail of the anchored surfactant. NMR measurements were also able to distinguish two types of solvent molecules based on their widely differing mobilities. MD simulations(Chapter9)of the dispersed anchored bilayer are able to reproduce the essential features of the experimental observations including the formation of a loosely bound lamellar structure. It also provides an explanation on how the spectroscopic observation of motional heterogeneity gives rise to the viscoelastic properties of the dispersed anchored bilayer.

The alkyl substitution effects and the hybridization effects on the rate of coupling of adsorbed hydrocarbon groups on Ag(111) have been investigated under ultrahigh vacuum by temperature programmed reaction/desorption (TPR/D). For these two different issues, two types of halide precursors were used. One is to form adsorbed fragments bearing C£\(sp3) and C£\-H, the other is to yield adsorbed fragments with different hybridized £\-carbons without C£\-H. The desired hydrocarbon groups were generated on Ag(111) by the thermal dissociation of the C-X (X = I or Br) bond in the corresponding halogenated compounds. Substitution of alkyl for hydrogen in the adsorbed alkyl groups systematically raises the coupling temperature. For example, 3-pentyl groups homo-couple at temperatures ~ 70 K higher than the ethyl homo-coupling reaction. The concept of ¡§geminal repulsion¡¨ can account for our experimental results while the size and the number of the alkyl substitution groups increase. Different hybridized C£\ (metal-bonded carbon) species cause various angle strain energies in the cyclic transition state for the coupling reaction. The C£\(sp) species (CH3C¡ÝC(ad) and (CH3)3SiC¡ÝC(ad)) have rather high coupling temperatures (~ 460 K) due to the unidirectional sp orbital and the stronger Ag-C(sp) bond in the transition state. The relative rates for homo-coupling as a function of the hybridization of the metal-bound carbon follow the trend sp3 > sp2 > sp on the Ag(111) surface. Lastly, we found that the isobutyl groups undergo a £]-hydride elimination instead of homo-coupling on the Ag(111) surface. It may be due to that isobutyl groups have a total of nine £]-hydogens among all the hydrocarbon groups, which makes this rare reaction pathway possibly occur on Ag(111).

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2008. / Includes vita. Also available online. Includes bibliographical references.