Introdução As doenças cardiovasculares estão entre as principais causas de morte no Brasil e no mundo. Evidências epidemiológicas e clínicas estabelecem associação entre dieta, dislipidemia e aumento do risco de morte. O consumo de proteína isolada de amaranto tem efeito hipocolesterolemizante e por isso pode reduzir, de modo significativo, os fatores de risco das doenças cardiovasculares. Objetivo Avaliar o efeito da ingestão do isolado protéico de amaranto, no perfil de lipoproteínas plasmáticas e na expressão de proteínas relacionadas à modulação da síntese do colesterol hepático. Métodos Vinte e oito ratos Wistar (Ratus novergicus) foram distribuidos em quatro grupos e receberam dietas diferenciadas pela fonte protéica. Os grupos experimentais (I e Icol) receberam dieta com 20por cento de proteína de amaranto e os grupos controle (C e Ccol) receberam dieta com 20por cento de caseína. As dietas col apresentavam 1por cento de colesterol. Ao grupo controle foi fornecida a média da quantidade de ração ingerida pelos grupos experimentais I e Icol (controle pair feeding). Para determinar o efeito da ingestão das dietas no metabolismo do colesterol, foram avaliadas as concentrações plasmáticas de triacilgliceróis, colesterol total e HDL-c, e as concentrações hepáticas de colesterol e lipídios totais. O efeito da ingestão da proteína de amaranto na regulação das vias de síntese do colesterol hepático foi investigado pela avaliação da expressão das proteínas nucleares: receptor X hepático alfa (LXR alfa), receptor ativado por proliferadores de peroxissoma alfa (PPAR alfa) e proteína ligadora do elemento regulado por esterol 2 (SREBP-2). Resultados A dieta Icol promoveu menor concentração plasmática de colesterol total e triacilgliceróis (36por cento e 47por cento , respectivamente) em comparação ao grupo Ccol. Observou-se, no fígado dos animais alimentados com dieta contendo proteína isolada de amaranto (I e Icol), menor concentração de lipídios totais e de fração colesterol. A digestibilidade entre as dietas Icol e Ccol não apresentou diferença significativa, enquanto a da dieta I foi menor que a da dieta C. Não foi observada alteração na expressão das proteínas PPAR alfa e LXR alfa em nenhum dos grupos. Uma redução significativa na expressão da proteína SREBP-2 foi verificada no fígado dos ratos que receberam dieta Icol em relação aos do grupo Ccol. Conclusão A ingestão de dieta Icol reduz de forma significativa a expressão do SREBP-2 no fígado de ratos. Essa redução sugere que o efeito hipocolesterolemizante promovido pela proteína de amaranto pode estar relacionado ao metabolismo endógeno do colesterol. Esse efeito independe da ação dos fatores de transcrição PPAR alfa e LXR alfa e pode estar associado à formação de peptídeos bioativos, muito embora os mecanismos não estejam claros. O isolado protéico apresenta efeito hepatoprotetor por diminuir o acúmulo de lipídios hepáticos mesmo quando o colesterol está presente na dieta / Introduction - Cardiovascular diseases are among the most important causes of death in Brazil and around the world. Epidemiologic and clinical evidences associate diet, dyslipidemia, and increased risk of death. Consumption of amaranth protein isolate has a hypocholesterolemic effect that may reduce, significantly, cardiovascular disease risk factors. Objective To assess the effect of amaranth protein isolate intake on plasma lipoprotein profile and on expression of proteins that modulate hepatic cholesterol synthesis. Methods Twenty eight Wistar rats were distributed in four groups and fed on different protein diets. The experimental groups (I e Icol) diets contained 20per cent amaranth protein and the control groups (C e Ccol) diets contained 20per cent casein. The col diets also contained 1per cent cholesterol. It was offered to the control group the mean of the amount of food consumed by the experimental groups (pair feeding control). In order to determine the effects of dietary intake on cholesterol metabolism, plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides, and HDL-c levels were assessed, as well as hepatic total lipids and cholesterol levels. The effect of amaranth protein on pathways of cholesterol synthesis was investigated by liver X receptors alpha (LXR alpha), peroxisome proliferator activated receptors alpha (PPAR alpha) and sterol regulatory element binding protein 2 (SREBP-2) expressions. Results Rats fed on Icol diet showed lower concentrations of plasma total cholesterol and triglycerides (36per cent and 47per cent, respectively) than those observed in Ccol diet group. A lower cholesterol and hepatic lipid concentration was observed in rats fed on amaranth protein isolate (I e Icol). There was no significant difference shown between the digestibility of the Icol and Ccol diets, although the digestibility of the I diet was lower than the digestibility of the C diet. No change was noticed in PPAR alpha and LXR alpha expression in any of the studied groups. There was a significantly down-regulation in SREBP-2 expression in the liver of rats fed on Icol diet when compared to those fed on Ccol diet. Conclusions The consumption of Icol diet reduces significantly SREBP-2 expression in the liver of rats. This decrease in SREBP-2 expression suggests that the hypocholesterolemic effect of the amaranth protein may be related to the endogenous metabolism of cholesterol. This effect does not depend on the transcription factors PPAR alpha and LXR alpha, and may be associated with bioactive peptides formation, although the mechanisms involved are not yet clear. The protein isolate has a hepatic-protective effect because it lowers hepatic lipid accumulation even when cholesterol was present in the diet

Objetivo. Amaranto é considerado um alimento funcional devido às suas propriedades de redução de colesterol plasmático. Um possível componente do amaranto responsável por este efeito é a proteína.Métodos. Neste estudo, foi produzido isolado protéico de amaranto através da solubilização da proteína em pH 11 e precipitação em pH 5,7, obtendo-se o isolado com pureza de 96% de proteína. Este isolado protéico foi utilizado como fonte de proteínas em dietas experimentais para hamsters que tiveram hipercolesterolemia induzida, previamente, por dieta contendo 30% de caseína e 0,05% de colesterol, durante 3 semanas. Os animais foram, então, distribuídos em três grupos (n=11 animais/grupo) e foram alimentados com dietas contendo: (A) 20% caseína (controle), (B) 20% proteína de amaranto purificada (grupo substituição) e (C) 20% caseína + 10% proteína de amaranto purificada (grupo suplementação). Resultados. Comparando-se com a dieta controle, o grupo da suplementação e o da substituição tiveram dramáticas reduções do nível de colesterol plasmático, 30% (p<0,05) e 51% (p<0,05) respectivamente, enquanto o controle apresentou redução de apenas 7% após os 28 dias de dieta. Já na primeira semana este comportamento de redução para as duas dietas contendo amaranto foi percebido, e a redução foi mais marcante na fração LDL. Os mecanismos envolvidos na redução do colesterol plasmático foram investigados. A digestibilidade verdadeira da proteína do amaranto foi igual à da caseína. A excreção de ácidos biliares foi inversamente proporcional à redução do colesterol plasmático nas diferentes dietas, enquanto que o colesterol excretado foi proporcional à redução do colesterol. Quando aminoácidos livres simulando o perfil da proteína de amaranto foram utilizados como única fonte de nitrogênio da dieta, a redução dos níveis de colesterol foi de 11%. A dieta contendo caseína e suplementada com arginina de forma a resultar numa relação lisina/arginina de 0,5 (a mesma observada na proteína de amaranto), mostrou-se deletéria aos parâmetros plasmáticos. Conclusões. Comprovou-se que a proteína de amaranto reduz o colesterol plasmático. A digestibilidade e excreção de ácidos biliares não estão relacionados com a redução do colesterol provocada pela proteína do amaranto. A relação dos aminoácidos lisina/arginina explica apenas parcialmente o mecanismo e apenas a proteína íntegra tem efeito sobre a excreção de colesterol nas fezes. O mecanismo envolvido na redução do colesterol nestes experimentos ainda não está totalmente elucidado, sugerindo a necessidade de futuros estudos da ação direta de peptídeos formados pela digestão incompleta da proteína do amaranto no metabolismo lipídico. / Objective. Amaranth has been considered a functional food because its consumption can lower blood cholesterol levels. In the present work the effect of amaranth protein on this property was investigated in hamsters. A possible component in amaranth grain that would respond for this effect is the protein fraction. Methods. In this study the amaranth protein was isolated by its alkaline solubilization at pH 11 and acid precipitation at pH 5.7. The isolate thus produced was defatted and resulted in a protein content of about 96%. This product was introduced in experimental diets to fed hamsters that previously had their blood cholesterol increased by a diet containing 30% casein and 0.05% cholesterol during 3 weeks Animals were then, divided in 3 groups (n = 11/group) were fed diets containing (g/100 g diet): (A) 20 casein (control), (B) 20 purified amaranth’s protein (group replacement), (C) 20 casein + 10 purified amaranth’s protein (group supplementation) for 4 wks. Results. The results showed that when amaranth was the sole protein source (at 20% level) or it was admixed with casein (20% casein +10% of amaranth protein), the hypercholesterolemized hamsters had a significant (P < 0.05) reduction in cholesterol levels (51 and 30%, respectively) as compared 7% reduction of the control group (20% casein). In the first week of diet the decrease was already observed. The lowering was mainly in LDL fraction. The mecanisms involved in lowering plasma cholesterol were investigated. Digestibility of amaranth protein was as high. The bile acids excretion was inversely proportional to plasma cholesterol lowering, while cholesterol excretion in feces was directly proportional. When free amino acids simulating the amaranth protein were used as the only nitrogen source of diet the cholesterol reduction was about 11%. Casein supplemented with arginine to bring the lysine/arginine ratio to 0.5, as observed in amaranth protein, was had deleterious effects to hamsters’ cholesterol levels. The bile acid and cholesterol excretion of this trial were equal to all groups. Conclusions. Amaranth´s protein reduces plasma cholesterol. Digestibility and bile acid excretion are not related to hypocholesterolemic effect of amaranth’s protein. The proportion between lysine/argine is a partial explanation for this effect, but the presence of whole protein is necessary for the higher cholesterol excretion in feces. The full understanding of mechanisms involved in cholesterol reduction in these experiments is not fully elucidated, suggesting further research on the direct action in lipid metabolism by peptides originated from the incomplete digestion of amaranth protein.

Master of Science / Department of Agronomy / Johanna A. Dille / Palmer amaranth and horseweed are problematic weeds in no-till soybeans in Kansas. Integrating cover crops and herbicide programs could suppress weed populations. To determine the emergence pattern and survival of horseweed, a study was conducted across six locations in eastern KS in 2014-2015 and 2015-2016. Horseweed seedlings and leaf number per seedling were recorded at two-week intervals. Cumulative GDDs required to reach 50% horseweed emergence increased from north to south. Horseweed survival ranged from 4 to 90%, and majority of horseweed emerged in the fall. Field studies were conducted to determine effects of cover crops and herbicide programs on Palmer amaranth near Manhattan, KS in 2014-2015 and 2015-2016. Five cover crop treatments included no cover, fall-sown winter wheat, spring-sown oat, pea, and mixture of oat and pea. Cover crops were terminated in May with glyphosate and 2,4-D alone or with residual herbicides of flumioxazin and pyroxasulfone. By 10 weeks after termination in 2014-2015, Palmer amaranth biomass and density, averaged across cover crops. was 95 and 69% less with residual herbicides than without, respectively, and Palmer amaranth biomass was 98% less in winter wheat and 91% less in spring oat, averaged across termination methods, compared to no cover. Time to 50% Palmer amaranth emergence was delayed with winter wheat, spring oat, and spring oat/pea mix without residual herbicide. Soybean yields were greater with residual herbicide and greater with winter wheat or spring oat cover crop in 2014-2015. A field study was conducted to determine suppression effects of cover crop and herbicide programs on horseweed and Palmer amaranth near Manhattan, KS in 2015-2016. Three fall treatments included fall-sown rye, a residual herbicide tank mix of glyphosate, dicamba, chlorimuron-ethyl, tribenuron-methyl, and AMS, and no fall application. Four spring treatments included no spring application or three herbicide tank mixes: glyphosate, dicamba, and AMS alone or with flumioxazin and pyroxasulfone as early preplant, or as split applied with 2/3 preplant and 1/3 at soybean planting. Similar levels of horseweed suppression were observed when some control measure was used in fall or spring. Fall rye completely suppressed horseweed while the fall herbicide suppressed biomass by 93% and density by 86% compared to no fall application. Palmer amaranth suppression was observed when a spring herbicide application was used. In rye, total weed biomass was reduced by 97% or more across all spring treatments. Total weed biomass was reduced with a spring herbicide was used. Soybean yields were least when no herbicide treatment was used in the spring. An integrated program of fall cover crops or herbicide applications together with spring herbicide applications maintained soybean yields.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Agronomy / Johanna A. Dille / Palmer amaranth is a competitive weed and has caused variable corn yield losses in diverse environments of Kansas. The objectives of this study were to 1) determine corn and Palmer amaranth growth, development, and grain (seed) production, 2) determine soil water content throughout the growing season, and 3) evaluate the performance of the modified ALMANAC model for simulating monoculture corn yield and corn yield loss from Palmer amaranth competition when corn and Palmer amaranth were grown alone or in competition under dryland and irrigated environments. For the first objective, field experiments were conducted in 2005 and 2006 with whole-plots of dryland and furrow irrigation arranged in a side-by-side design. Within each soil water environment, sub-plot treatments were monoculture Palmer amaranth at one plant m-1 of row, and corn with zero, one, and four Palmer amaranth plants m-1 of row. Corn height, leaf number, LAI, and total plant dry weight were reduced with increasing water stress and were reduced further in the presence of Palmer amaranth. Corn yield losses were similar with increasing Palmer amaranth density across soil water environments in each year, except for 2006 dryland corn. Palmer amaranth growth and development were negatively impacted by corn interference and weed density. For the second objective, Time Domain Reflectometry measurements documented seasonal trends of volumetric soil water content at the 0 to 15 and 0 to 30 cm soil profile depths for treatments in dryland and irrigated environments each year. The soil water depletion rate increased as water received prior to a drying period increased at the 0 to 30 cm soil depth in the dryland and irrigated environments. For the third objective, the modified ALMANAC model was parameterized based on monoculture corn and Palmer amaranth growth data. The model underestimated monoculture corn yield but overestimated corn yield with Palmer amaranth competition. The model performance was not consistent when comparing simulation results to dryland and irrigated experiments conducted across Kansas. Overall, the experiment provided an improved understanding of corn yield loss risks associated with water management and Palmer amaranth competition.

6 pp. / Grain amaranth was a dietary staple for Central American Indians before Columbus arrived in the New World.1 Today, in Mexico, amaranth is popped like popcorn and mixed with sugar or honey to make a popular sweet treat, called “Alegría” which is the Spanish word for joy (Figure 1). Amaranth is a nutritious grain, similar to chia seeds2 and quinoa, providing high amount of plant protein, fiber, iron, and calcium. This article can help you learn more about amaranth, and show you how to incorporate them into your balanced diet.

Research was conducted in 2012 and 2013 to evaluate the use of saflufenacil in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Studies included a preemergence evaluation of different rates of saflufenacil in comparison to one rate of carfentrazone, a postemergence evaluation of saflufenacil at different rates and carfentrazone at one rate at different postemergence timings, an adjuvant evaluation to assess rice injury and weed control from different adjuvants when mixed with saflufenacil, a Clearfield program evaluation where saflufenacil was compared to other broadleaf herbicides in a Clearfield weed control program, and a cultivar tolerance evaluation where postemergence applications of saflufenacil were compared to carfentrazone on five different commercial rice cultivars.

Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri [S.] Wats) is an economically troublesome weed to southeastern United States soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) growers. Palmer amaranth is troublesome due to its evolution of resistance to multiple herbicide modes of action, competiveness, and prolific seed production. Greenhouse studies were conducted at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS to evaluate different rates of 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) for control of Palmer amaranth. Field experiments were conducted at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS in 2013 and 2014 to evaluate Palmer amaranth emergence using a cultural practice and a residual herbicide. Field experiments were also conducted at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS in 2013 and 2014 to evaluate Palmer amaranth control with applications of glyphosate, glufosinate, and 2,4-D alone and in mixtures.

In an effort to reduce application costs and to integrate plant health management strategies in soybean, growers may combine POST herbicides with foliar fertilizers or cytokinin mixtures. Field experiments were conducted at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS in 2015 and 2016 to evaluate soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] injury, weed control, and agronomic performance when combining blended or single-nutrient foliar fertilizers with POST herbicide applications. Field experiments were also conducted at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS in 2015 and 2016 to evaluate the influence of cytokinin mixtures on soybean injury and weed control when combined with common POST soybean herbicides.

Glyphosate resistant crops were rapidly adopted by farmers since their introduction in 1996 and currently, greater than 90% of cotton and soybean crops are glyphosate resistant. Glyphosate has been an effective mean for controlling Palmer amaranth, however overreliance on glyphosate based systems resulted in weeds that can no longer be controlled with glyphosate. Palmer amaranth resistance to glyphosate has been confirmed in ten US states including Virginia's bordering neighbor North Carolina. The objectives of this study were to i) determine the spread of Palmer amaranth and evaluate awareness among farmers and agribusinesses of herbicide resistant weeds in Virginia; ii) determine the efficacy of commonly used cotton and soybean herbicides programs for Palmer amaranth control; and iii) conduct greenhouse experiments to quantify the level of glyphosate resistance in a Greensville County, Virginia population. Using a communication network of Virginia county extension agents and crop advisers, Palmer amaranth was found in 15 Virginia counties. A survey was conducted to evaluate awareness of herbicide resistance and management of weeds in Virginia. Ninety percent of producers had fields planted to Roundup Ready® crops for each of the last 3 years. One hundred percent of the responders claimed awareness of the potential for weeds to develop resistance to glyphosate, but when asked about how serious they consider weed resistance to herbicides, the responders average rating was of 7.9 (on a scale of 1 to 10 where 1 is "not at all serious" and 10 is "very serious" ). Eighteen percent of the responder population claimed no awareness of glyphosate resistant weeds documented in Virginia. Herbicide efficacy experiments were established in soybean and cotton fields infested with Palmer amaranth. In soybean, experiments were established in a field where Palmer amaranth was not adequately controlled with glyphosate in the previous year. Glyphosate applied at 0.87 + 0.87 + 1.74 kg ae ha⁻¹ at 1, 3, and 5 weeks after planting (WAP) provided 82 to 85% control in 2009, but only 23 to 30% control in 2010, a hot and dry year. Glyphosate applied after preemergence (PRE) herbicides improved control to 90 percent. Programs that included s-metolachlor + metribuzin applied preemergence and followed by glyphosate + fomesafen applied postemergence provided the best control (93%) at 8 WAP. Glufosinate based herbicide programs provided greater than 85% control when applied alone, and control increased to 95% when preceded by PRE herbicides. Many conventional control systems integrating different modes of action provided more than 80% control at final evaluation of Palmer amaranth in 2009 and 2010. In soybean, the most consistent and effective program was flumioxazin applied PRE followed by chlorimuron + thifensulfuron, which provided 99 and 82% control at final evaluation in 2009 and 2010, respectively. Cotton fields were heavily infested with Palmer amaranth, but control with glyphosate had historically been good. Glyphosate applied early postemergence, late postemergence, and late post-directed provided more than 95 percent control at final evaluation of Palmer amaranth. Preemergence applications of fomesafen, fluometuron, or pendimethalin + fomesafen provided 77 to 99 percent early-season control and control was complete with an additional postemergence glyphosate application. Glufosinate applied at 0.45 kg ha⁻¹ at 1 and 3 WAP or applied at 0.45 kg ha⁻¹ following a preemergence herbicide provided greater than 95% control. Greenhouse experiments confirmed Palmer amaranth resistance in a population collected from Greensville County, Virginia. In the first experiment, the resistant biotype's I₅₀ value (rate necessary for 50% inhibition) for dry weight was 1.47 kg ae ha⁻¹, which is 4.6 times greater than the susceptible biotype and 1.7 times the recommended use rate of glyphosate. For fresh weight, the I₅₀ value of the resistant biotype was 1.60 kg ae ha⁻¹, 4.7 times that of the susceptible biotype of 0.34 kg ae ha⁻¹. In the second experiment, the I₅₀ value for the susceptible population could not be determined because all glyphosate rates resulted in complete control. However, the resistant population required 1.01 and 1.30 kg ae ha⁻¹ of glyphosate to reduce the fresh and dry weight by 50%. / Master of Science

Master of Science / Department of Agronomy / Curtis R. Thompson / Curtis R. Thompson / Postemergent herbicide options for grain sorghum are limited and increasingly challenged by the development of herbicide resistant weeds. The herbicide pyrasulfotole & bromoxynil (P&B) was evaluated for potential use in grain sorghum and for control of a suspected HPPD-resistant Palmer amaranth population. Field experiments were conducted near Manhattan and Rossville, KS, to evaluate grain sorghum response to P&B with and without 2,4-D applied to growth stages from 1-leaf through the flag leaf stage and tankmixed with 2,4-D ester, amine, or dicamba applied to 3- and 6-leaf sorghum. The addition of 2,4-D ester did not reduce sorghum injury from P&B alone. Increasing the rate of P&B increased injury. Treatments applied to 1- and 4-leaf sorghum were injured the most. All P&B treated sorghum, regardless of timing, yielded 8 to 20% less than the untreated check. Pyrasulfotole & bromoxynil applied alone or with dicamba injured sorghum less than 2,4-D applied at 3- or 6-leaf. Increasing the rate from 140 to 280 g ha[superscript]-1 2,4-D amine or ester increased injury by 6 to 11%. Yields were lowest when P&B was applied with 2,4-D amine at 140 g ha[superscript]-1 and 2,4-D amine or ester at 280 g ha[superscript]-1 compared to all other treatments. Increasing the rate of growth regulator herbicides decreased yields by 8% and did not reduce crop injury from P&B alone. Greenhouse and field experiments were conducted to evaluate the response of two suspected P&B-resistant (R1 & R2) and one susceptible (S) Palmer amaranth population to P&B, atrazine, and tembotrione. Herbicides were applied when plants were 7 to 19 cm tall. The S population was controlled with less than field use rates. A resistance index (RI) of 4.8 to 11.0 was determined for R1 and R2 in greenhouse and field experiments. Tembotrione controlled 100% of S in all experiments, while providing 63 to 86% injury to R1 and R2 populations. Atrazine did not control the resistant populations. Pyrasofotole & bromoxynil will be an valuable tool for weed control in sorghum, however, Palmer amaranth populations exist that will not be controlled.