The analogue models and the kinematic models based on the seismic data results were used to simulate the fault pattern which develops above a basement horst. The two major normal faults intersect with each other along the strike in the sedimentary covers. The fault pattern developed in the sedimentary cover is controlled by the dip of the basement fault and the width of the basement horst. The single horst structure was only developed in the sedimentary covers above the wider end of the basement horst. The hourglass structure was developed in the sedimentary covers above the narrower end of the basement horst. The precursor faults developed ahead of the major second-order normal faults when the dip angle of the basement fault is larger than 60°. The antithetic faults developed ahead of the major second-order normal faults when the dip angle of the basement fault is less than 50°. The analogue models were designed in a way that the two hanging wall blocks glide down along the basement horst simultaneously to simulate the activity of the basement faults. The kinematic models were designed based on the alternative sequential slip method to study the kinematic behaviors of the conjugate normal faults. The Lufeng Sag was characterized by the basement horst in the center and the deep half-grabens developed beside the horst. The width of the basement horst decreases along its strike. The models indicates that the second-order normal faults developed above the basement horst, observed in the Lufeng Sag seismic profiles, were reproducible and much more detailed structures were revealed / Detta projekt har analog modellering och kinematiska modeller baserade på seismiska data använts för att simulera förkastningsmönster ovanför en berggrundshorst. Två stora normal förkastningar möts i strykningsriktningen hos de ovanliggande sedimentlagren. Förkastningsmönstret som utvecklats i ovanliggande sedimentlager styrs av stupningen hos underliggande urberg samt bredden hos den underliggande horsten. Den enda horststrukturen som utvecklades i sedimentlagren skedde i fallet med en bredare underliggande horststruktur. En timglasstruktur bildades i den sedimentära successionen vid den smalare ändan av berggrundshorsten. De initiala förkastningarna bildades tidigt för att sedan övergå i andra ordningens normalförkastningar i de fall då stupningen hos underliggande berggrund överstiger 60°. Mindre antitetiska förkastningar bildades före andra ordningens förkastningar där berggrunds-stupningen understiger 50°. Den analoga modell som nyttjades experimentellt var konstruerad så att de två hängväggskomponenterna kunde röra sig fritt samtidigt längs med berggrundshorsten för att simulera aktivering av befintliga förkastningar i berggrunden. De kinematiska modeller som nyttjades var konstruerade enligt metoden för sekventiella rörelser (eng - sequential slip method) för att studera kinematiska beteenden hos konjugerande förkastningspar. Lufeng-sänkans utseende har kontrollerats av berggrundshorsten i mitten samt av de djupa halv-grabens på båda sidorna av horsten. Bredden på berggrundshorsten minskar längs dess stupning. Modellerna påvisar att andra ordningens normal-förkastningar bildades ovanför berggrundshorsten, likt i de seismiska profilerna över området, samt att strukturerna var reproducerbara och väldigt detaljrika.

Il est maintenant avéré que la plupart des grands corps magmatiques sont construits par amalgamation d’intrusions plus petites. Ces incréments sont pour la plupart des sills, qui sont considérés comme les briques élémentaires des corps magmatiques plus grands. Malgré de nombreuses études, certains aspects de la mise en place des plutons sont encore mal compris : aucun modèle ne contraint leur taille et on ne sait toujours pas comment l’encaissant se déforme lors de leur mise en place incrémentale. La taille des réservoirs magmatiques, construits par injections répétées de magma, dépend de la taille des sills qui le constituent, et notamment de l’extension latérale de ces sills. Cette extension latérale pourrait être contrôlée par la solidification du magma lors de la mise en place du sill. Des expériences analogiques de laboratoire ont donc été réalisées afin de quantifier les effets de la solidification sur 1) la formation des sills et 2) la dynamique de propagation, la géométrie et la taille des sills. De l’huile végétale chaude, analogue du magma se solidifiant lors de sa propagation, est injectée dans un solide de gélatine plus froid, analogue des roches encaissantes. Le premier set d’expérience montre qu’avec l’augmentation des effets de la solidification, différents types d’intrusions sont observés (dykes traversant l’interface, sills et dykes stoppés à l’interface). Contrairement à des expériences où le refroidissement ne peut pas affecter la formation des sills, la présence d’une interface a priori mécaniquement favorable n’est donc pas suffisante pour former un sill ; les effets de la solidification restreignent la formation des sills. Le second set d’expérience montre deux comportements extrêmes pour la dynamique de propagation et la géométrie des sills. Quand les effets de la solidification sont faibles, la propagation du sill est continue et leur surface est lisse et régulière. A l’inverse, quand les effets sont forts, la propagation est discontinue et la géométrie des sills est complexe (e.g. lobes et surfaces cordées). De plus, des effets de la solidification plus importants entraînent des surfaces de sills plus faibles : en restreignant l’extension latérale des sills, le refroidissement du magma et la solidification sont susceptibles d’impacter directement la taille des plutons construits par amalgamation de sills. Les grandes déformations induites par la mise en place incrémentale des plutons sont encore mal comprises. Les modèles actuels négligent généralement les rhéologies cassantes et plastiques observées sur le terrain. Dans un premier temps, une mission de terrain dans les Henry Mountains (Utah, USA) a été réalisée afin de mieux comprendre les déformations entourant trois intrusions de tailles différentes : le Maiden Creek Sill, le Trachyte Mesa Laccolith et le Black Mesa Bysmalith. L’intensité de la déformation, la réduction de porosité et l’augmentation de microstructures liées à une forte déformation sont positivement corrélées. L’intensité de ces paramètres augmente à l’approche du contact encaissant / intrusion, et est plus marquée pour les contacts latéraux que pour les contacts supérieurs et inférieurs. Plus la taille de l’intrusion est importante, plus l’encaissant situé sur les côtés est déformé sur une grande distance. En revanche, la déformation observée au sommet du bysmalite est peu étendue, ce qui est dû à la présence d’une faille ayant permis une translation de l’encaissant plutôt que sa déformation importante. Dans un deuxième temps, des expériences analogiques de laboratoire multi-injections ont été effectuées pour essayer de mieux caractériser ces déformations. Ces expériences permettent d’observer la création d’un corps principal constitué de plusieurs sills empilés les uns sur les autres, par sur ou sous-accrétion. L’extension latérale de ce corps principal est fortement contrainte par la taille du premier sill mis en place. (...) / It is now accepted that the majority of large magma bodies is constructed by amalgamation of smaller magmatic intrusions. These increments are mostly sills and are thought as building blocks for larger magma bodies. Despite numerous studies, some aspects of their emplacement are still misunderstood: no model exists to constrain the size of plutons and we still do not know how the host rock is deformed during their incremental emplacement. The size of magma reservoirs, constructed by repeating magma pulses, depends on the size of the sills that built them, especially the lateral extend of these sills. This lateral extend could be controlled by solidification during sill emplacement. Analogue experiments have thus been carried out to quantify the effects of magma solidification on 1) sill formation and 2) sill propagation dynamics, geometry and size. Hot liquid vegetable oil, the magma analogue that solidifies during its propagation, is injected in a layered colder gelatine solid, the host rock analogue. A first set of experiments shows that as solidification effects increase, several types of intrusions are observed (dykes passing through the interface, sills, and dykes stopping at the interface). Contrary to isothermal experiments, where cooling cannot affect sill formation, the presence of an interface that would be a priori mechanically favorable is not a sufficient condition for sill formation; solidification effects restrict sill formation. A second set of experiments shows two extreme behaviours for sill propagation dynamics and geometry. When solidification effects are small, the propagation is continuous and sills have a regular and smooth surface. Conversely, when solidification effects are important, sill propagation is discontinuous and their geometry is complex (e.g. lobes and ropy structures). Moreover, higher solidification effects induce smaller sill surfaces; in restricting the lateral extent of sills, magma cooling and solidification are likely to impact directly the size of plutons constructed by amalgamated sills. The large deformations induced by incremental pluton emplacement are still misundurstood. Current models usually neglect brittle and plastic rheology, which are observed in the field. Firstly, a field study has been realized in the Henry Mountains (Utah, USA), in order to better understand the deformations around three intrusions of increasing size: the Maiden Creek Sill, the Trachyte Mesa Laccolith and the Black Mesa Bysmalith. The intensity of the deformation, the porosity reduction and the augmentation of microstructures related to large deformation are positively correlated. The intensity of these parameters increases as one gets closer to the host rock / intrusion contact, and is more important for lateral contacts than upper ones. Larger intrusions induce lateral deformation of the host rock over larger distances. However, the deformation at the top of the bysmalith is localized because of a fault allowing the translation of the host rock instead of an intense deformation. Secondarily, analogue laboratory experiments involving multiple injections have been carried out in order to better understand these deformations. The creation of a main body, made of multiple stacked sills emplaced by under or over-acretion can be observed. The lateral extent of this main body is highly dependant on the size of the first sill emplaced. However, the experimental dificulties and the mechanical properties of the gelatine as a crustal analogue limit the usefulness of these experiments.

pas de résumé

The end-member types of shallow magmatic intrusions comprise cone sheets and dykes. These propagate from their source magma chamber towards the Earth’s surface. The propagation of magma within the shallow part of the volcano plumbing system produces surface deformation and seismicity, signs of volcanic unrest. Studying surface displacement using GPS and InSAR, geodetic modelling, fitting modelled data to real displacements, and inversion is regularly used to understand the processes in the subsurface. There is no possibility in nature to validate the assumptions of these models. However, using analogue modelling, it is possible to reproduce cone sheets and dykes in a controlled environment and study the associated surface deformation. This thesis tests the hypothesis that the two end-member types of magmatic sheet intrusions produce specific patterns of surface deformation. The analogue model surface is documented using two different monitoring setups: moiré monitoring and photogrammetry. The moiré method (dataset 1) consists of 43 experiments, 19 of which were dykes, 22 were cone sheets, and 2 were classified as hybrids. Photo- grammetry (dataset 2) was applied in 8 experiments, 3 of which produced cone sheets and 5 dykes. Dataset 1 successfully identified surface deformation patterns specific to the two intrusion types. Cone sheets develop in a gradual linear fashion, while the dykes exhibit a two-phase behaviour. The first phase shows little deformation until about halfway through the experiment duration when rapid deformation starts to occur. The point of maximum uplift, in both intrusion types, indicates the area of eruption from an early stage. Dataset 2 primarily evaluated the benefits of using the photogrammetric method. It successfully resolved horizontal components of displacement making it possible to study brittle defor- mation. As Dataset 2 consists of a limited amount of experiments, the results cannot be considered conclusive. However, they indicate that characteristic patterns of brittle deformation exist for the two types. Future improvements in this field include studying effects of topography and anisotropy on the surface deformation of the analogue models. Improvements in temporal and spatial resolution in the monitoring methods used to study surface displacement in nature is needed to perform analyses, similar to the ones presented here, on real surface deformation. The misfit of the surface deformation seen in numerical models compared to analogue models indicate that sheet intrusion propagation is not yet fully understood. / När magma rör sig från magmakammare mot jordytan i den ytliga delen av det underjordiska system av magma som finns under vulkaner, bildas ytdeformation. Genom att studera ytdeformationen med hjälp av GPS och InSAR samt numerisk modellering försöker forskare förstå dessa underjordiska processer för att förutspå framtida utbrott. Dessvärre finns ingen möjlighet att undersöka huruvida dessa numeriska modeller faktiskt överensstämmer med naturen. I gamla utdöda vulkaner som eroderats ner kan man se vulkanens inre där det finns stelnade, magmafyllda sprickor, så kallade gångar. Tyvärr ger detta dock ingen inblick i hur gångarnas bildning återspeglades i ytan. Detta kan man undersöka med hjälp av analoga modeller där det är möjligt att skapa likartade intrusioner i en kontrollerad labb-miljö och studera den tillhörande ytdeformationen. Denna avhandling undersöker hypotesen att de två huvudsakliga typerna av ytliga magmatiska gångar skapar specifika identifierbara mönster av ytdeformation. Detta testas genom att dokumentera den analoga modellens yta alltjämt som intrusionerna bildas med hjälp av två olika övervaknings- metoder. Den första metoden lyckades identifiera mönster som är specifika för de två olika typerna. Den högsta punkten på den deformerade ytan kan användas för att förutspå den plats där framtida utbrott kommer att ske i båda typerna. Den andra metoden lyckades urskilja dem horisontella komponenterna av förskjutning som gör det möjligt att studera den spröda deformation som utvecklas på ytan. Resultaten tyder på att karakteristiska mönster av spröd deformation existerar för de två typerna. För att förbättra de analoga modellerna måste man undersöka hur en mer topografiskt varierad yta påverkar den bildade deformation samt en skorpa som inte är helt homogen. Vid jämförelse mellan numeriska modeller och analoga modeller sågs en stor skillnad som tyder på att vi ännu inte förstår hur magma rör sig genom jordskorpan. Framtida användning av analyserna presenterade i denna avhandling kräver en förbättring av upplösningen på systemen som används till vulkanövervakning i naturen.

Analogue and numerical modelling in geosciences is an excellent tool for studying complex spatio-temporal relationships in mass and energy transfer. Recent developments and advances in the plate tectonics and planetology require a combination of both approaches to simulate processes that cannot be studied directly in-situ. Advanced physical models are complemented by deformation analysis which is based on image velocimetry and photogrammetry, while numerical simulations utilize both modern and traditional methods to solve corresponding equations in complex domains. This work compiles several models that are focused on deformation analysis associated with material and heat transfer in large accretionary systems. The second subject of the thesis represent the investigation of the formation and propagation of large mudflows in martian atmospheric conditions. In the first part of the work we present a general overview of the problems of analogue and numerical modelling including scaling theory, governing equations, individual methods and history. In the second part of the thesis we deal with laboratory and numerical simulations of collision-indentation tectonics associated with the emergence of large accretionary systems on Earth. The last part of the thesis is devoted to experiments designed for the...

Analogue and numerical modelling in geosciences is an excellent tool for studying complex spatio-temporal relationships in mass and energy transfer. Recent developments and advances in the plate tectonics and planetology require a combination of both approaches to simulate processes that cannot be studied directly in-situ. Advanced physical models are complemented by deformation analysis which is based on image velocimetry and photogrammetry, while numerical simulations utilize both modern and traditional methods to solve corresponding equations in complex domains. This work compiles several models that are focused on deformation analysis associated with material and heat transfer in large accretionary systems. The second subject of the thesis represent the investigation of the formation and propagation of large mudflows in martian atmospheric conditions. In the first part of the work we present a general overview of the problems of analogue and numerical modelling including scaling theory, governing equations, individual methods and history. In the second part of the thesis we deal with laboratory and numerical simulations of collision-indentation tectonics associated with the emergence of large accretionary systems on Earth. The last part of the thesis is devoted to experiments designed for the...

Les effondrements de flanc déclenchent de larges avalanches de débris et glissements de terrain, provoquant ainsi une modification de la pente du volcan et altérant le paysage. Les différents types de volcans subissent des effondrements de flanc lors de leur développement. Aux Philippines, par exemple, les volcans présentant des brèches sont les cônes, sub-cônes et volcans massifs. Les avalanches de débris affectent les édifices volcaniques et non-volcaniques ; leur étude constitue donc un enjeu primordial pour l’évaluation des risques naturels. Les dépôts d’avalanche de débris (DAD) présentent des structures de surface et internes, des morphologies et des textures pouvant être utilisées pour déterminer le type de transport, les mécanismes de déformation et les vitesses d’emplacement de l’avalanche de débris. Cependant, sur le terrain, les DAD sont souvent vastes et chaotiques, ainsi l’apport de la télédétection complète l’étude de terrain en apportant une vision d’ensemble de l’avalanche. Notre étude s’intéresse à la structure et morphologie des DAD par l’utilisation de modèles analogiques et en contexte naturel via l’étude du Mt Iriga et Guinsaugon aux Philippines et à travers d’autres sites dans le monde (Mt Meager, Canada ; Storegga Slide, Norvège). L’étude de la vitesse de mise en place, de la dynamique et des mécanismes de déformation des avalanches de débris s’est faite via la modélisation analogique. Il apparait ainsi que la formation de “hummocks” est un processus clé dans la structuration des DAD. Les “hummocks” sont des parties massives du volcan arrachées lors de l’avalanche de débris et qui se disloquent au fur et à mesure de son avancée. Cette dislocation des “hummocks” s’effectue via l’apparition de failles normales à fort pendage qui fusionnent avec les zones de cisaillement à faible pendage situées à la base du glissement. Les “hummocks” fournissent des informations sur les conditions de transport et la composition initiale de l’avalanche. Leur géométrie (taille et forme), leur structure interne et leur distribution spatiale sont des indicateurs de la vitesse du développement de l’avalanche. Ils permettent d’interpréter sa dynamique de mise en place. Les expériences analogiques utilisant une rampe courbée montrent le développement de zones d’accumulation et d’épaississement à l’endroit où les matériaux atteignent une surface de dépôt à faible pente. Les expériences avec des rampes rectilignes montrent de plus long glissement. L’extension de ces avalanches est accommodée par des structures en horst et graben ainsi qu’en transtension. Le dépôt consécutif à l’avalanche peut ê remobilisé lors d’effondrements secondaires. L’ensemble de ces expériences montre que la morphologie de la surface de glissement influence les mécanismes de mise en place, l’extension spatiale et la structure de l’avalanche. La cartographie structurale et morphologique acquise par télédétection ainsi que la description de caractéristiques récurrentes sur plusieurs DAD, difficiles d’accès et jusqu’ici non cartographiés (Süphan Dağı (Turkey), Cerro Pular-Pajonales (Argentina), and Tacna (Peru), a permis de préciser les scénarios, les causes et les facteurs de mise en place des DAD. La cartographie des DAD est une étape nécessaire pour retracer les évènements passés et estimer les risques naturels dans une zone spécifique. L’identification et la description des morphologies et structures des DAD devraient permettre la compréhension des mécanismes de mise en place de l’avalanche. / Flank collapse generates avalanches and large landslides that significantly change the shape of a volcano and alter the surrounding landscape. Most types of volcanoes experience flank collapse at some point during their development. In the Philippines, for example, the numerous volcanoes with breached edifices belong to the cone, subcone, and massif morphometric classes. Debris avalanches occur frequently on both volcanic and non-volcanic terrains making it an important geologic event to consider for hazard assessment. Debris avalanche deposits (DAD) preserve surface and internal structures, morphology, and texture that can be used to determine transport type, deformation history, causal mechanism, and emplacement kinematics. However, natural DAD are often too vast and chaotic-seeming in the field so that structural and morphological mapping by remote sensing is a good complement to studying them. This study describes and analyses recurrent structural and morphological features of analogue models and natural DAD at Mt Iriga and Guinsaugon (Philippines), and uses several other examples at Mt Meager (Canada), and Storegga Slide (Norway). The study explores the use of analogue models as landslide kinematics, dynamics, and emplacement and causal mechanism indicators. Hummocks are identified as a key structural element of DAD. Hummocks, a major DAD topographic feature, are formed as the mass in motion slides and evolves by progressive spreading and break up. Internally, high angle normal faults dissect hummocks and merge into low angle shear zones at the base of the slide zone. Hummock size distribution is related to lithology, initial position, and avalanche kinematics. Hummocks provide information on the transport conditions and initial composition of the landslide. Their geometry (size and shape), internal structures, and spatial distribution are kinematic indicators for landslides from development until emplacement and provide a framework for interpreting emplacement dynamics. Experiments with curved analogue ramps show the development of an area of accumulation and thickening, where accelerating materials reach a gently sloped depositional surface. Experiments with straight ramps show a longer slides with continued extension by horst and graben structures and transtensional grabens. A thickened mass is found to subsequently remobilise and advance by secondary collapse. This set of experiments show that failure and transport surface morphology can influence the emplacement mechanism, morphology, and avalanche runout. Structural and morphological mapping by remote sensing, and description of recurrent features at the remote and previously unmapped Süphan Dağı (Turkey), Cerro Pular-Pajonales (Argentina), and Tacna (Peru) DAD suggest scenarios, causes, triggering and emplacement mechanisms of these DAD. These are used to explain their avalanche kinematics and dynamics. Mapping DAD is a necessary step for identifying past events and existing hazards in specific areas. Identifying and describing the DAD structures and morphology will help understand the kinematics and dynamics of the emplaced avalanches.