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No / This article describes how an insight into the chemical and physical cues that affect bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation can provide ideas for creating successful antifouling or antimicrobial surfaces. To facilitate the design of new materials, the role of physical and chemical properties on bacterial adhesion is reviewed. The current approaches to reduce bacterial adhesion to various polymeric surfaces are discussed, as well as how multidisciplinary research on surface design and engineering may have an impact on both fundamental and applied microbiological science and technology.

No / This chapter describes the current approaches to reduce bacterial adhesion to various biomaterial surfaces, focusing on nonfouling surfaces through patterning and hydrophobicity plasma-assisted surface treatment and deposition; incorporation of antimicrobials, antibiotics, antibiofilms, and natural extracts that are either immobilized or released; dual function antimicrobial surfaces; incorporation of nonpathogenic bacteria, bacteriophages, and biofilm dispersal agents but also reduced bacterial adhesion through tissue integration. To facilitate the design of new materials, the role of physical, chemical, and biological surface properties on bacterial adhesion is reviewed in each case, as an insight into the chemical and physical cues that affect bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation can provide ideas for creating successful antifouling or antimicrobial surfaces. The application of these surfaces is explored based on the clinical needs and the market gaps. How multidisciplinary research on surface design and engineering may have an impact on both fundamental understanding of bacterial adhesion to biomaterials and applied biomaterial science and technology is finally discussed.

[pt] A dissertação de mestrado tem por objetivo estudar a indesejável formação do fouling no sistema de arrefecimento dos hidrogeradores da usina hidrelétrica Fontes Nova com vistas a propor técnicas alternativas para a sua mitigação. Mais especificamente, avaliar o desempenho de uma técnica antifouling que expõe o escoamento à ação de um campo elétrico externo. A pesquisa foi motivada (i) pela perspectiva de contribuir para o entendimento do complexo fenômeno de formação e mitigação do fouling e (ii) pelo desafio de propor um método on-line, não invasivo, de simples operação, em contraposição aos métodos de limpeza mecânica e química normalmente ofensores do meio ambiente e que requerem a interrupção da geração. Desenvolvido no contexto do projeto de PeD Light/Aneel Ref. OKE 06-07 intitulado Tecnologia de tratamento de água de refrigeração da usina Fontes Nova, a pesquisa, de natureza experimental e quantitativa, desenvolveu-se com base numa metodologia que avalia o desempenho hidrodinâmico e térmico do trocador de calor quando submetido à ação do dispositivo antifouling estudado. Os resultados do trabalho permitiram concluir que a incrustação predominante é de natureza Bio (biofouling) e que embora o dispositivo não invasivo iniba a formação dos indesejáveis micro-organismos que obstruem o trocador e afetam a sua eficácia de operação ele não elimina o problema. A partir dessa constatação, uma técnica alternativa de limpeza on-line que faz uso de esferas abrasivas foi concebida e projetada para promover a limpeza do trocador de calor em operação. / [en] The objective of the master thesis is to study the undesirable formation of fouling in the cooling system of hydroeletric generators of Fontes Nova Power Plant with the view to propose an alternatives techniques for its mitigation. more specifically, to assess the performance of an antifouling device that exposes the flow to the action of an external electric field. The research was motivated by the perspective of contributing to the understanding of the complex phenomenon associated with the formation and mitigation of fouling and by the challenge of proposin an alternate on-line, non-invasive method, of simple operation, contrasting to conventional of mechanical and chemical cleaning methods that normally offender the environment and requires interruption of the generation. Developed in the context of the project R and D light/aneel Ref. OKE 06-07 entitled Technology for treatment of refrigeration water of the Fontes Nova Power Plant, the research, of quantitative and experimental nature, was developed based on a methodology that assess the of hydrodynamic and thermal performance of the heat exchanger when submitted to the action of the antifouling device studied. The results of the work support the conclusion that the fouling is of a biological nature (biofouling) and that although the non-invasive device inhibits the formation of the unwanted microorganisms that block the exchanger and affect its effectiveness of operation it does not eliminate the problem. An alternative on-line cleaning technique that makes use of abrasive spheres was designed and engineered to clean the heat exchanger in operation.

Οι νανοσωλήνες άνθρακα, από τη στιγμή της ανακάλυψής τους, έχουν προσελκύσει το ενδιαφέρον της επιστημονικής κοινότητας, λόγω της ευρείας εφαρμογής τους σε πολλά επιστημονικά και τεχνολογικά πεδία, ως συνέπεια των μοναδικών ιδιοτήτων τους. Σημαντική είναι η χρησιμοποίηση των νανοσωλήνων άνθρακα με σκοπό την ανάπτυξη μιας καινοτόμου μεμβράνης υψηλών αποδόσεων, για χρήση στην τεχνολογία Βιοαντιδραστήρα Μεμβρανών (Membrane Bioreactors, MBRs). Στην παρούσα εργασία, πραγματοποιήθηκε χημική τροποποίηση των νανοσωλήνων άνθρακα με πολυμερικές αλυσίδες. Η τροποποίηση των νανοσωλήνων μπορεί όχι μόνο να αυξήσει τη διαλυτότητά τους, αλλά να βελτιώσει την επεξεργασιμότητά τους και να τους προσδώσει νέες ιδιότητες, ανάλογα με τη φύση των μορίων της τροποποίησης. H τροποποίηση των νανοσωλήνων άνθρακα μπορεί να επιτευχθεί με την επισύναψη λειτουργικών ομάδων στην επιφάνειά τους, είτε μέσω ομοιοπολικού είτε μέσω μη ομοιοπολικού δεσμού. Η ομοιοπολική σύνδεση επιτυγχάνεται με δύο μεθόδους: τον “εμβολιασμό προς” και τον “εμβολιασμό από”. Στον “εμβολιασμό προς” το συντεθειμένο πολυμερές προσδένεται απευθείας στην επιφάνεια του νανοσωλήνα, ενώ στον “εμβολιασμό από” η πολυμερική αλυσίδα αναπτύσσεται πάνω στην επιφάνεια του νανοσωλήνα. Στη συγκεκριμένη εργασία, λεπτοί νανοσωλήνες άνθρακα πολλαπλού τοιχώματος (Thin MWCNTs) και νανοσωλήνες άνθρακα πολλαπλού τοιχώματος (MWCNTs) τροποποιήθηκαν ομοιοπολικά και με τις δύο μεθόδους με πολυμερή, τα οποία μπορούν να ενσωματώσουν είτε ομοιοπολικά είτε ηλεκτροστατικά ομάδες τεταρτοταγούς αζώτου και φωσφoνίου, οι οποίες παρουσιάζουν βιοστατικές ιδιότητες. Ειδικότερα, έγιναν προσπάθειες ομοιοπολικής πρόσδεσης των βιοστατικών ομάδων μέσω πολυμερισμού κατάλληλων μονομερών ή με πολυμερισμό των μονομερών και κατάλληλη χημική τροποποίησή τους στην επιφάνεια των νανοσωλήνων άνθρακα. Τα μονομερή ήταν ο 2-(διμεθυλάμινο) μεθακρυλικός αιθυλεστέρας (DMAEMA) και το τεταρτοταγές DMAEMA για τους MWCNTs, ενώ μια επιπλέον προσπάθεια πραγματοποιήθηκε για πολυμερισμό του Ν,Ν-[(διμεθυλάμινο)πρόπυλο]μεθακρυλαμιδίου (MADAP) στους Thin MWCNTs. Επειδή οι προσπάθειες δεν προχώρησαν σε σημαντικό βαθμό, συντέθηκε το στατιστικό συμπολυμερές P(AA12-co-VBCHAM) με συμπολυμερισμό του ακρυλικού οξέος (ΑΑ) και του 4-βινυλοβένζυλο χλωριδίου (VBC) σε ποσοστό 12% και 88% αντίστοιχα και εισαγωγή της N,N-διμεθυλοδεκαεξυλαμίνης, το οποίο στη συνέχεια εισήχθη στους τροποποιημένους, με ομάδες φαινόλης, νανοσωλήνες άνθρακα (CNTs-PhOH). Επίσης, επετεύχθη εισαγωγή των βιοστατικών ομάδων αμμωνίου και φωσφονίου μέσω ηλεκτροστατικής αλληλεπίδρασης ως αντισταθμιστικά ιόντα στον αρνητικά φορτισμένο πολυηλεκτρολύτη πολυ(στυρενοσουλφονικό νάτριο) (PSSNa), που είχε προσδεθεί στους τροποποιημένους, με ομάδες εκκινητή ATRP, (πολυμερισμός ελευθέρων ριζών μέσω μεταφοράς ατόμου) λεπτούς νανοσωλήνες άνθρακα πολλαπλού τοιχώματος (Τhin MWCNTs-Ph-INIT). Η ίδια διαδικασία πραγματοποιήθηκε για την εισαγωγή ομάδων αμμωνίου στο PSSNa που είχε προσδεθεί στους τροποποιημένους, με ομάδες εκκινητή ATRP, νανοσωλήνες άνθρακα πολλαπλού τοιχώματος (MWCNTs-Ph-INIT). Τα συντεθειμένα βιοστατικά υλικά μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε πολλές εφαρμογές, μεταξύ των οποίων είναι και ο καθαρισμός του νερού. / Since their discovery, carbon nanotubes, have attracted the interest of the scientific community, because of their wide application in a numerous scientific and technological fields, as a consequence of their unique properties. The use of carbon nanotubes is of great importance to the field of Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) for the development of innovative membranes of high performance. The modification of carbon nanotubes can not only increase their solubility, but improve their processability and give them new properties, depending on the nature of the molecules of modification. In this work, the chemical modification of carbon nanotubes with polymer chains is investigated. Modification of carbon nanotubes can be achieved with the attachment of functional groups in their surface, through covalent or non covalent bond. The covalent bond is achieved with two methods: “grafting to” and “grafting from”. In the “grafting to” method, the synthesized polymer is attached directly on the surface of carbon nanotube, while in the “grafting from” method, the polymer chain is developed from the surface of the carbon nanotube. In the present work, thin multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Thin MWCNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were modified covalently with both methods with polymers, that can incorporate either covalently or electrostatically, quartenary ammonium and phosphonium groups that present antifouling properties. More specifically, efforts were made in covalent attachment of antifouling groups via polymerization of suitable monomers or with polymerization of monomers and appropriate subsequent chemical modification in the surface of carbon nanotubes. The monomers were the 2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) and quaternized DMAEMA for MWCNTs, while an additional effort was made in polymerization of N,N-[(dimethylamino)propyl]methacrylamide (MADAP) in Thin MWCNTs. Because the efforts were not successful, the random copolymer P(AA12-co-VBCHAM) was prepared, with copolymerization of acrylic acid (AA) and 4-vinylbenzyl chloride (VBC) in 12% and 88% percentage respectively and introduction of N,N-Dimethylhexadecylamine, which afterwards was introduced into modified, with phenol groups, carbon nanotubes (CNTs-PhOH). Furthermore, successful introduction of antifouling ammonium and phosphonium groups via electostatical interaction as counter ions in the negatively charged polyelectrolyte poly(sodium styrene sulfonate) (PPSNa) was accomplished. The polyelectrolyte was grafted onto modified, with ATRP (atom transfer radical polymerization) initiator groups, thin multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Thin MWCNTs-Ph-INIT). The same process was followed for the introduction of ammonium groups in PSSNa, which was grafted onto modified, with ATRP initiator groups, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs-Ph-INIT). The composed antifouling materials can be used in a lot of applications, including the water purification.

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Dans son ensemble, les techniques de pointe actuelles procurent l'information nécessaire à une analyse approfondie de la cellule, ce qui nécessite cependant l’utilisation d’instruments et de plateformes analytiques différentes. Les biopuces à cellule permettent l’analyse des cellules vivantes en temps réel et constituent donc un outil important pour de nombreuses applications dans la recherche biomédicale telles que la toxicologie et la pharmaceutique.En effet, le suivi en temps réel de la réponse non-seulement physique mais aussi chimique des cellules, obtenue suite à des stimuli externes spécifiques et en utilisant un système d'imagerie cellulaire, peut fournir une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes et des voies de signalisation impliquées dans la réaction toxicologique.Le développement de tels dispositifs multianalytiques pour l'analyse biologique repose essentiellement sur la capacité de produire des surfaces fonctionnelles de pointe permettant une interaction et organisation contrôlée des cellules et d'autres entités telles que par exemple des anticorps ou des nanoparticules. Par conséquent, un grand effort technologique repose sur le développement des techniques permettant la création de motifs fonctionnels sur une surface de nature souvent inerte. Dans cette thèse, nous proposons deux techniques de micro- et nanofabrication permettant la création de motifs de cellules et d’anticorps sur un revêtement non-adhésif composé de poly (oxyde d'éthylène) (« PEO-like ») déposé par plasma. La première approche consiste à immobiliser par physisorption un micro-réseau de molécules adhésives de la matrice extracellulaire (par exemple la fibronectine) en utilisant des techniques d’impression par microcontact et par non-contact. La deuxième approche permet la création de motifs adhésifs sur la surface constitués de nanoparticules d'or (Au NPs) en utilisant des techniques d’impression similaire. L'immobilisation des Au NPs sur le revêtement « PEO-like » ne nécessite pas de modifications chimiques et est réalisé par une technique d'autoassemblage simple et irréversible. Ces surfaces d'or nanostructurées ont été testées pour l’analyse du phénomène de reconnaissance biomoléculaire et en tant que plateforme de culture cellulaire. Finalement, cette plateforme a été intégrée à un microscope plasmonique qui a permis, de façon préliminaire, la surveillance et la visualisation de la motilité d’une cellule unique, cela en temps réel et sans marquage, ainsi que la détection spécifique et sensible de protéines tests / State of the art techniques give as a whole the required information needed for the complete cell analysis but require different instruments and different types of platforms. The concept of cells on-a-chip allowing real-time analysis of living cells is, therefore, an important tool for many biomedical research applications such as toxicology and drug discovery. Monitoring in real-time the physical but also chemical response of live cells to specific external stimuli using live-cell imaging can provide a better understanding of the mechanisms and pathways involved in the toxicological reaction. The development of such multianalytical devices for biological analysis relies essentially on the ability to design advanced functional surfaces enabling a controlled interaction and organisation of cells and other nanostructures (e.g antibodies and nanoparticles). Therefore, a large technological effort is related on the development of advanced patterning techniques. In this thesis, we propose two simple and direct micro- and nano-fabrication techniques enabling the creation of cellular and sensing patterns on a non-adhesive and cell repellent plasma-deposited poly (ethyleneoxide) (PEO-like) coating. The first approach consists in immobilising a microarray of ECM molecules (cell-adhesive proteins, e.g fibronectin) on the cell repellent PEO-like surface by physisorption using microspotting or microcontact printing techniques. The second approach enables the creation of Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) adhesive patterns on the surface using similar spotting techniques. The immobilization of Au NPs on PEO-like coatings does not require any prior chemical modifications and is achieved by a straightforward and irreversible self-assembly technique. These gold nanostructured surfaces have been tested for protein bio-recognition analysis and as a cell culture platform. Ultimately, this platform was integrated to a novel plasmonic microscope which enabled, preliminarily, the label-free monitoring and visualisation of a single cell attachment and detachment in real time, as well as the specific and sensitive detection of test proteins in a cell-free environment