This research has focused on the development of novel substrate mimics as potential DXR inhibitors of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), an essential enzyme in the mevalonate-independent pathway for the biosynthesis of isoprenoids in Plasmodium falciparum. DXR mediates the isomerisation and reduction of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate (DOXP) into 2C-methyl-D-erithrytol 4-phosphate (MEP) and has been validated as an attractive target for the development of novel anti-malarial chemotherapeutic agents. Reaction of various amines with specially prepared 4-phosphonated crotonic acid in the presence of the peptide coupling reagent, 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC), has afforded a series of amido-phosphonate esters in moderate to good yields (48% - 73%) which, using a RuCl₃/CeCl₃/NaIO₄ catalyst system, have been dihydroxylated to furnish the dihydroxy-amido phosphonate ester pro-drugs; subsequent hydrolysis under microwave irradiation has afforded the corresponding phosphonic acids. A second series of potential inhibitors viz., 3-substituted aniline-derived phosphonate esters, their corresponding phosphonic acids and mono-sodium salts, have also been successfully synthesised. In these compounds, the essential functional groups are separated by one, two, three or four methylene groups, Deprotonation of the 3-substituted aniline substrates, followed by reaction with the appropriate ω-chloroalkanoyl chloride produced the ω-chloroamide intermediates, which were subjected to the Michaelis-Arbuzov reaction to afford the diethyl phosphonate esters in moderate to good yields (48% - 74%). Microwave-assisted TMSBrmediated cleavage of the phosphonate esters furnished the phosphonic acids, neutralisation of which afforded the mono-sodium salts. Furan-derived phosphate esters and phosphonic acids have been prepared as conformationally-restricted DOXP analogues. Functionalization at C-5 of the trityl-protected furan was achieved using the Vilsmeier-Haack formylation and Friedel-Crafts acylation reactions and, following de-tritylation, phosphorylation and oximation, using hydroxylamine hydrochloride, the novel oxime derivatives have been isolated as a third series of potential DXR inhibitors in very good yields (87% - 96%). Finally, in order to exploit an additional binding pocket in the PƒDXR active site, a series of N-benzylated phosphoramidic derivatives were obtained in seven steps from the starting material, diethyl phosphoramidate. The known inhibitors, fosmidomycin and its acetyl derivative FR900098, were also successfully synthesised as standards for STD-NMR binding and inhibition assays. In all, over 200 compounds (136 novel) have been prepared and appropriately characterised using 1-and 2-D NMR and IR spectroscopic analysis and, where necessary, HRMS or combustion analysis. Saturation Transfer Difference (STD) protein-NMR experiments, undertaken using selected compounds, have revealed binding of most of the ligands examined to EcDXR. Computersimulated docking studies have also been used to explore the preferred ligand-binding conformations and interactions between the ligands and essential DXR active-site residues, while DXR-enzyme inhibition assays of selected synthesised ligands have revealed certain patterns of inhibitory activity.

Parasitic diseases remain a health burden affecting more than 500 million people worldwide with malaria having the highest mortality rate. The parasites can be transferred to the human bodies either through the mouth by ingestion of contaminated food and water or through the skin by bug bites or direct contact to environments harbouring them. Epidemiological control seems to be impossible since there is failure to control the insect vectors as well as practice of hygiene. Therefore, this has led to the development of a number of vaccines, chemotherapy and disease control programs. However, parasites have increasingly developed resistance to traditionally used anti-parasitic drugs and due to that fact there is need for alternative medication for parasitic diseases. Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) facilitates the folding of proteins in all living cells and their role is more important to parasites because of their environmental changes, from vector to host. Hsp90s play a major role; therefore this justifies the need for a deeper analysis of the parasitic Hsp90s. Recent studies have revealed that, the Plasmodium sp. Hsp90 has an extended linker region which increases the protein’s affinity for ATP and its inhibitors. Therefore we hypothesize that there are also significant features in other parasitic Hsp90s which would lead to Hsp90 being defined as potential drug targets. In the present study an attempt was made to gain more insight into the differences in primary structure of human and parasitic Hsp90s. The sequences were retrieved from the NCBI database and analysis was done in three groups basing on the localization of the Hsp90. The physicochemical properties were calculated and in every group, the protozoan Hsp90s showed significant differences when compared to the human orthologs. Multiple sequence alignments (MSA) showed that endoplasmic reticulum Hsp90s have an extended region in the middle domain indicating their ability to bind to a unique subset of client proteins. Sequence identities between the human and parasites showed that the protozoan Hsp90s are less related to the human Hsp90s as compared to the other parasites. Likewise, motif analysis showed the trypanosomatids and apicomplexan groups have their own unique set of motifs and they were grouped together in the phylogenetic analysis. Phylogenetic analysis also showed that, the protozoan Hsp90s forms their own clades in each group while the helminths did not form in endoplasmic reticulum group. In this study, we concluded that, Hsp90 can be a potential drug target for the protozoan species and more specifically those from the apicomplexan and trypanosomatids groups.

A series of 31 sulfur-nitrogen donor ligands and 64 metal(II) complexes have been investigated. The thiomethylated aniline ligands 2–(methylthiomethyl)aniline 2MT and 2–(methylthio)aniline 2MA were synthesized with their substituted derivatives (-Me, -MeO, -Cl, -Br, -NO2) to serve as chelating agents. These ligands behave as bidentate ligands with SN donor group with Co(II), Ni(II) and Cu(II). The Co(II) and Ni(II) complexes have the ML2Cl2 molecular formula while the Cu(II) complexes formed with MLCl2 stoichiometry where L is the bidentate ligand. The ligands and their metal(II) complexes have been characterized by elemental analysis and with spectroscopic techniques. The trend observed in the NMR spectra and IR frequencies of the thiomethylated compounds shows there is a significant difference between the 2MT and 2MA series as a result of sulfur lone pairs extending the conjugation of the aromatic ring in the case of the latter. The effect of the position and electronic nature of ring substituent on the NMR shifts of the amine protons is discussed. The 6- and 5-membered chelate complexes formed by the 2MT and 2MA ligands respectively do not show significant diversity in their spectroscopic properties. From the elemental analysis for the Co(II) and Ni(II) complexes, their compositions reveal 1:2 M:L stoichiometry with 2 chlorine atoms from the respective metal salts. In addition, the spectroscopic data are largely indicative of tetragonally distorted structures for these solid complexes. The X-ray crystallography data reveal the Cu(II) complexes exist as square pyramidal dimers and with long Cu–Cl equitorial bonds fit into the tetragonally distorted octahedral structure. The electrolytic nature of Co(II) and Cu(II) complexes in DMF were found to be similar, they behave as non electrolytes in contrast to Ni(II) complexes which are 1:1 electrolytes. The electronic spectra of these metal(II) complexes were found to be different for both their solid forms and in solutions of DMF and DMSO and this has been discussed. The thiomethylated aniline ligands possess the amine and thioether groups which are present in many known biologically active compounds, hence the biological activity of the ligands and their metal complexes were tested against three strains of bacteria and one fungus. The methoxy-substituted derivatives were found to possess better inhibitory activity and this was similarly reflected in the metal(II) complexes. The activity of the complexes can be said to be in the order, Cu(II) > Co(II) > Ni(II). The Schiff-base derivatives were prepared from the ligands and para-methoxysalicylaldehyde and their Cu(II) complexes were synthesized in order to determine their biological activity. The Schiff-base ligands were found to be less active than their parent ligands. The Cu(II) complexes are not soluble in water, DMSO or DMF, as a result and could not be evaluated for their biological activity. Based on the good results from the antimicrobial evaluation, the antiplasmodial activity of some of the Co(II), Ni(II) and Cu(II) complexes of the thiomethylated ligands against Plasmodium falciparum (FCR-3) was determined. At 50 μM concentration level, the Cu(II) complexes show activity equal or better than the prophylactic chloroquine. The Cu(II) complexes with the methoxy-substituted demonstrated exceptional activity but their Co(II) and Ni(II) analogues did not show any activity. The cytotoxicity of the active Cu(II) complexes at 50 μM concentration was determined against the breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231). The compounds destroyed the cancer cell in the range of 28–40%, thus showing their preferred activity against the parasitic cell instead of the cancer cell. The selectivity demonstrated by these compounds have shown them to be potential antimalarial agents and this could be further investigated.

Please read the abstract in the section 00front of this document / Thesis (DPhil (Medical Immunology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Immunology / unrestricted

Orientador: Fabio Trindade Maranhão Costa / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-18T14:00:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Kayano_AnaCarolinaAndradeVitor_M.pdf: 4619978 bytes, checksum: 3bf657caae96f9c4faf7fcdf7e519956 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Para superar o problema do aumento de resistência às drogas, os medicamentos tradicionais são fontes importantes na investigação de potenciais novos antimaláricos. Caesalpinia pluviosa, mais conhecida como 'sibipiruna', é originária do Brasil e estudos mostraram que este gênero apresenta várias propriedades farmacológicas, incluindo a atividade antimalárica. O extrato bruto obtido da casca foi submetido ao fracionamento com diferentes solventes resultando em sete frações. Para avaliar a citotoxicidade do extrato e frações em células MCF-7 foi realizado o ensaio de MTT. Essas amostras foram testadas in vitro contra P. falciparum cloroquino sensível (3D7) e resistente (S20) e in vivo em camundongos infectados por P. chabaudi. A interação da fração etanólica 100% de C. pluviosa com o artesunato foi avaliado e análises de espectrometria de massas foram realizados. As frações etanólica 100% e metanólica 50% apresentaram atividade antimalárica significativa em concentrações não tóxicas, e o ensaio de interação medicamentosa do artesunato com a fração etanólica 100% foi sinérgico. Essa fração foi capaz de inibir significativamente a parasitemia dos animais de forma dose dependente após 4 dias de tratamento (0-3 dia pós infecção). Além disso, análise de espectrometria de massas revelou a presença do íon m/z 303.0450, sugerindo a presença de quercetina. No entanto, em uma segunda análise com o padrão de quercetina mostrou íons diferentes como m/z 137 e 153. Nossos resultados mostram que a fração etanólica 100% de C. pluviosa apresentou atividade antimalárica in vitro em concentrações não tóxicas e esse efeito foi potencializado com a presença de artesunato. Além disso, essa atividade antimalárica foi também sustentada após o tratamento in vivo de camundongos infectados. Finalmente, as análises de espectrometria de massas sugerem que um novo composto, provavelmente um isômero da quercetina, possa estar relacionado à atividade antimalárica da fração etanólica 100% / Abstract: To overcome the problem of increasing drug resistance traditional medicines are an important source for investigation of potential new antimalarials. Caesalpinia pluviosa, commonly named 'sibipiruna', is originated from Brazil and studies showed that this genus present multiple therapeutic properties, including antimalarial activity. Crude extract obtained from stem bark was purified with different solvents, resulting in seven fractions. MTT assay was performed to evaluate cytotoxicity in MCF-7 cells. The crude extract and its fractions were tested in vitro against chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) and -resistant (S20) strains of Plasmodium falciparum and in vivo in P. chabaudi-infected mice. In vitro interaction with artesunate and C. pluviosa fraction was assessed and mass spectrometry analyses were conducted. At non-toxic concentrations the 100% ethanolic and 50% methanolic fractions presented significant antimalarial activity against both 3D7 and S20 strains, and drug interaction assays with artesunate showed a synergistic effect with 100% ethanolic fraction. This fraction was able to inhibit mice parasitemia significantly and in a dose dependent manner after 4 days treatment (0-3 post-infection). Moreover, mass spectrometry analyses revealed the presence of an ion corresponding to m/z 303.0450, suggesting the presence of quercetin. However, a second set of analyses, with the standard quercetin, showed distinct ions of m/z 137 and 153. Our findings show that the 100% ethanolic fraction of C. pluviosa exhibited antimalarial activity in vitro at non-toxic concentrations and this effect was potentiated with the presence of artesunate. Moreover, this antimalarial activity was also sustained in vivo after treatment of infected mice. Finally, mass spectrometry analyses suggest a new compound, most likely an isomer of quercetin, related with antimalarial activity of the 100% ethanolic fraction / Mestrado / Imunologia / Mestre em Genética e Biologia Molecular

O estudo da biossíntese de isoprenóides em P. falciparum por meio da via 2C-metil-D-eritritol-4-fosfato (MEP) é apontado como possível alvo terapêutico, visto a via ser ausente em humanos. Foi descrito que nos estágios intraeritrocitários de P. falciparum a via essencial de biossíntese de isoprenóides é a via MEP. As vias do Chiquimato e MEP são precursoras da biossíntese de vitamina E e ambas já foram descritas em P. falciparum. É sugerido que a biossíntese de vitamina E possa ocorrer no parasita, representando um possível alvo para o desenvolvimento de novas drogas antimaláricas. Empregando marcações metabólicas com precursores radioativos, três diferentes métodos de RP-HPLC e análises por espectrometria de massas confirmamos a biossíntese de vitamina E nos três estágios intraeritrocíticos do parasita. O tratamento com ácido úsnico, mostrou inibição dessa biossíntese no estágio esquizonte e do crescimento do parasita. Demonstramos por meio de uma sonda fluorescente, ácido Parinárico, que a vitamina E atua como antioxidante lipofílico, protegendo a lipoperoxidação. Esses resultados não só contribuem para a compreensão da biologia de P. falciparum, mas também elucidam partes das vias MEP e do Chiquimato que podem servir como alvos terapêuticos. / The study of isoprenoid biosynthesis in Plasmodium falciparum by 2C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate pathway (MEP) it is presented as a therapeutic target once that it is absent in humans. It was found in intraerythrocytic stages of P. falciparum the biosynthesis of isoprenoids by the MEP pathway. The shikimate and MEP pathways are the precursors of biosynthesis of vitamin E and both pathways have already been described in P. falciparum. It is suggested that the biosynthesis of vitamin E might occur in the parasite, representing a possible target for developing new antimalarial drugs. Using metabolic labelling with radiolabelled precursors, three different methods of RP-HPLC and mass spectrometry analyses confirmed the biosynthesis of vitamin E in the three intraerythrocytic stages of parasite. The treatment with usnic acid showed an inhibition of this biosynthesis and of the growth of parasite. We demonstrated by means of a fluorescent probe, the acid Parinaric, that vitamin E acts as a lipophilic antioxidant protecting the membrane of lipoperoxidation. These findings not only contribute to the current understanding of P. falciparum biology but shed light on a pathway that could serve as a chemotherapeutic target.

MSc (Chemistry) / Department of Chemistry / This dissertation focuses on the application of 1, 3, 5-triazine in a pharmaceutical point of view since it has wide range of uses as described in chapter 1. Malaria is one of the most prevalent and deadly infectious diseases worldwide though there are already many synthesized anti-malarial drugs which are in use presently, drug resistance seems to be one of the major problem and combination therapy seems to be the only solution for now. Hence in this study we used hybridization as a tool (Figure 9) to synthesize new antimalarial drugs using 1, 3, 5-triazine as an intermediate linker, linking known anti-malarial drug, different amine and chloroquine-like amines together using nucleophilic substitution reaction. As explained in chapter four of this dissertation, triazine is used to synthesize mono-, di- and tri-amino-1, 3, 5-triazine substituted products. Using THF as a solvent and K2CO3 as a base changing in temperatures, from 0 oC 25 oC or reflux. Some products were synthesized using microwave irradiation. The application of triazine as an intermediate linker in the above mentioned condition yielded five mono-amino substituted dichloro-1, 3, 5-triazine (21-25) in an average yield of 82%, three amino substitution chloro-1, 3, 5-triazine (26-28) in an average yield of 87%, two amino substituted-1, 3, 5-triazine (29, 30) in an average of 90%, nine chloroquine-like synthesized compounds (33-41) in 84 % average yields respectively. / NRF

With the increase in recent years in the prevalence of malaria, and in drug resistance of Plasmodium falciparum, there has been much interest in natural plant products for new antimalarials with novel modes of action against Plasmodium. Artemisinin or Qinghaosu is one such antimalarial isolated from a Chinese herb, Anemisia annua (Asteraceae) and it is currently undergoing phase I and II clinical trials. The Southern African species, Artemisia afra (African wormwood, wildeals, lengana) is commonly used by local traditional healers for symptoms of malaria, in particular fever. Thus it seemed appropriate to investigate this species for antimalarial activity. Crude petroleum ether soxhlet extracts of Anemisia afra had demonstrated antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum, FCR-3, cultured in vitro. The IC₅₀ values ranged from 5-13μg/ml. The extract from leaves and flowers was then screened against D10 (chloroquine-sensitive) and FAC8 (chloroquineresistant) P. falciparum, in vitro, with IC₅₀ values of 1.03μg/ml and l.5μg/ml respectively. This extract was fractionated by column chromatography using silica gel-60 and the fractions obtained were screened for antimalarial activity. The most active fraction had an IC₅₀ of 0.5μg/ml against D10 and FAC8. Using TLC and HPLC-UV analysis with pure artemisinin as a standard, no artemisinin could be detected in this fraction. This result was confirmed by thermospray LC-MS analyses. Purification of this fraction yielded ultimately a single pure compound; a clear colourless oil identified by MS and NMR analyses as hydroxydavanone. The compound was screened against a variety of P. falciparum strains with varying degrees of sensitivity and resistance to both chloroquine and mefloquine. Their sensitivity against artemisinin was also established. IC₅₀ values obtained for the isolated pure compound against P. falciparum ranged from 0.87 to 2.54μg/ml. The IC₅₀ values obtained for general cytotoxicity of the crude extract and isolated pure compound against RAT-I fibroblast cells were 34.78 ± 8.23 and 6.29 ± 0.95 μg/ml (n=4) respectively. Thus the crude extract and isolated pure compound exhibited a greater antimalarial than cytotoxic effect. Hence, there are implications for A. afra to be used as a phytomedicine for the treatment of malaria. In vivo studies are recommended for hydroxydavanone in order to fully assess its potential for clinical use.

No description available.

Department of Chemistry / PhD (Chemistry) / This thesis is concerned with the computational study of naphthylisoquinoline alkaloids having antimalarial properties. The study was considered interesting because of the importance of gathering information on antimalarial molecules and because these molecules had not yet been studied computationally. The alkaloids considered in this study had been isolated from tropical lianas belonging to the Dioncophyllaceae and Ancistrodaceae families. They comprise alkaloids with both monomeric and dimeric structures. The monomeric structures consist of one unit and the dimeric ones of two units, with each unit containing a naphthalene moiety and an isoquinoline moiety. 33 monomeric molecules were studied, which represent a large portion of all the monomeric naphthylisoquinoline alkaloids isolated so far. Two dimeric molecules with antimalarial activity were investigated, namely, jozimine A2 and mbandakamine A. A third dimeric molecule, with a structure close to that of jozimine A2 but different activity (michellamine A, anti-HIV) was also calculated for comparison purposes. This work utilised electronic structures methods and involved the conformational study of all the molecules selected to identify the stabilising factors in vacuo and in solution. Two levels of theory (HF/ 6-31G (d,p) and DFT/B3LYP/ 6-31+G(d,p)) were utilised to compare their performance for compounds of this type, also in view of a future study extending to other compounds of the same class. The molecules were firstly studied in vacuo and secondly in three different solvents – chloroform, acetonitrile and water – characterized by different polarities and different H-bonding abilities. Quantum chemical calculations in solution were carried out using the Polarisable Continuum Model (PCM). The main stabilizing factors are the presence and types of intramolecular hydrogen bonds (IHBs), which are the dominant factors, and also the mutual orientation of the moieties. The possible IHBs comprise OH⋯O (or OH⋯N and NH⋯O for mbandakamine A) and other H-bond types interactions such as OH⋯ and CH⋯O (or CH⋯O and CH⋯N for mbandakamine A). The moieties prefer to be perpendicular one to another, which is a common tendency of aromatic vii systems. In monomeric structures, there may be only one OH⋯O and possibly also one of each of the other two types of IHBs interactions. In dimeric structures, there may be up to four (five in mbandakamine A) OH⋯O IHBs simultaneously and also other H-bond type interactions. The results provide a comprehensive picture of the molecular properties of these compounds, such as conformational preferences, dipole moments, HOMO-LUMO energy gaps, harmonic vibrational frequencies, solvent effect and influence of the solvent on molecular properties which respond to polarisation by the solvent. Altogether, these results may contribute to a better understanding of their biological activity and to the design of molecular structures with enhanced biological activity. This is the reason of focusing the efforts on the investigation of chemical and physical properties of these alkaloids molecules. / NRF