A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg In fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2015 / The first two chapters of this thesis deals with the synthesis of 6H-benzo[d]-naphtho[ 1,2- b]pyran-6-one motif found in gilvocarcin as well as related aromatic compounds containing the aromatic pyranone moiety. The synthesis was undertaken by employing the Suzuki- Miyaura cross coupling reaction and a novel N-bromosuccinimide induced ring cyclization reaction to afford the pyranone. It was established that the treatment of both [2-(1,4- dimethoxynaphthalen-2-yl)phenyl]methanol and (2',5'-dimethoxy-[1,1'-biphenyl]-2- yl)methanol separately with N-bromosuccinimide results in the unexpected synthesis of a naphthopyranone ring system in the form of 12-methoxy-6H-dibenzo[c,h]chromen-6-one and 2-methoxy-6H-benzo[c]chromen-6-one respectively. Application of the same methodology for the attempted synthesis of related compounds namely, 1-hydroxy-12-methoxy-6Hdibenzo[ c,h]chromen-6-one and 8-fluoro-12-methoxy-6H-dibenzo[c,h]chromen-6-one unfortunately did not generate the desired results. Attempts were made to elucidate the mechanism of this reaction. The most apparent mechanism indicates that Nbromosuccinimide, in the presence of air, oxidizes the benzylic alcohol to an aldehyde which is then converted to an acid bromide allowing for the ring closure with the adjacent aromatic ether to afford the desired pyranone. In Chapter 3 and 4 of this thesis we dealt with the synthesis of benzo[b]phenanthridine-7,12- dione motif, the backbone of biologically important secondary metabolite jadomycin B. Again, a key step involves employing the Suzuki-Miyaura cross coupling reaction. The synthetic methodology also sheds some light on the dynamics of the ring closure of benzylic amines onto naphthoquinones resulting in the synthesis of benzo[i]phenanthridine-11,12- dione, 12-methoxybenzo[i]phenanthridine and 1-hydroxybenzo[i]phenanthridine-11,12-dione. The synthesis of benzo fused phenanthridines has been undertaken in Chapter 5 and 6 by employing Suzuki-Miyaura cross coupling reaction and a potassium t-butoxide and light mediated cyclization reaction as the key steps. The synthesis of 5- phenylbenzo[i]phenanthridine was undertaken successfully but attempts to execute the same methodology to form a compound library of related benzo-fused phenanthridines was unsuccessful. The same methodology employing a Suzuki-Miyura cross coupling reaction and potassium tbutoxide and light mediated cyclization reaction was applied in Chapter 7 and 8 of the thesis directed towards the synthesis of 13H-indolo[3,2-c]acridine and 3-methoxy-13H-indolo[3,2- c]acridine. The successful synthesis of the 13H-indolo[3,2-c]acridine is reported using this methodology.

Esta Tese apresenta duas revisões de literatura: 1. Síntese de aldeídos e cetonas a partir de compostos de enxofre. 2. Síntese de benzaldeídos deuterados. E descrita a reação de sulfenilação de benzil fenil sulfonas, conduzindo a um novo \"synthon\", α-metiltio-benzil fenil sulfona (1). Y-C6H4-CH(SCH3)SO2C6H5 Y = H,CH3,Cl,OCH3,NO2,CN. É relatada a hidrólise ácida de (1), fornecendo benzaldeídos para substituídos. É proposta a decomposição térmica de (1), como um método novo de síntese de benzaldeídos para substituídos. É descrita uma reação de um passo só, envolvendo alquilação e decomposição térmica de (1) e fornecendo cetonas aromáticas. Este método permite sintetizar cetonas contendo grupos sensíveis a ácidos. O método pirolítico é aplicado à síntese de aldeídos aromáticos deuterados, que são obtidos em 98% de pureza isotópica. Os benzaldeídos deuterados e não deuterados são obtidos em bons rendimentos, não se notando diferenças provenientes do caráter eletrônico dos substituintes no anel. É apresentada uma discussão sobre os aspectos mecanísticos da decomposição térmica. / This thesis presents two literature reviews: 1. Synthesis of aldehydes and ketones, starting from the sulphur containing compounds 2. Synthesis of deuterated benzaldehydes. The sulphenylation reaction of benzyl phenyl sulphones, leading to a new \"synthon\", α-methylthio-benzyl phenyl sulphone (1), is described. Y-C6H4-CH(SCH3)SO2C6H5 Y = H,CH3,OCH3,Cl,NO2,CN. Acid hydrolyses of (1) to give p-substituted benzaldehydes are reported. A novel reaction - Thermal Oecomposition of (1) - as an improved method for the synthesis of p-substituted benzaldehydes is proposed. One pot reaction, which consists of alkylation and thermal decomposition of (1), to give aromatic ketones, is reported. Some ketones containing acid-sensitive groups are obtained. The pyrolyt ic method is applied to the synthesis of deuterated aromatic aldehydes, which are obtained in 98% of isotopic purity. The yields of the deuterated and non-deuterated benzaldehydes are good, and do not show any dependence on the eletronic character of the para substituents. A discussion on some mechanistic aspects of the thermal decomposition is presented.

A realização deste trabalho objetivou a avaliação quantitativa da absorção da radiação UVB (290-320 nm) em oito amostras de própolis, incorporadas em base cosmética apropriada, sob a forma de extrato mole, originárias de diversas regiões com diferentes origens botânicas sendo duas de Minas Gerais, três de São Paulo, uma de Santa Catarina, uma do Rio Grande do Sul e outra da Pensilvânia - EUA. A estimativa de absorção foi feita através de método espectrofotométrico com medidas de absorbâncias na faixa entre 290 a 320 nm, tomadas de 5 em 5 nm. Cada medida de absorbância foi relacionada à intensidade e ao efeito eritemogênico da radiação em seu respectivo comprimento de onda. Os resultados tiveram como parâmetro o padrão de referência salicilato de homomentila, aprovado pela FDA para determinação de FPS in vivo. Foi obtido um perfil cromatográfico através de cromatografia em camada delgada para avaliação qualitativa de nossas amostras em relação a alguns flavonóides e ácidos aromáticos, o que nos permitiu constatar a presença de ácido cafeico em todas as amostras analisadas. Foram dosados flavonóides totais por método colorimétrico com cloreto de alumínio, expressos em crisina a 330 nm. Foi feita a comparação entre os resultados de FPS e flavonóides totais e observamos proporcionalidade direta entre a maioria das amostras, o que confirma a ação de absorção de radiação ultra-violeta por flavonóides colhidos pelas abelhas em plantas. / The aim of this work was to evaluate quantitatively the UVB absorption (290-320 nm) of propolis, contained in eight cosmetic samples as soft extract, from different botanical origins and several regions, such as Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul and Pennsylvania (USA). A spectrophotometric method using absorbance measurements in a range of 290-320 nm, taken at 5 nm intervals, was used to asses the absorbance. Each absorbance measurement was related to both intensity and erythemal effect of the radiation at its respective wavelength. Homosalate, which is approved by the FDA as reference standard, was used for the determination of SPF in vivo. Chromatograms of the samples were obtained by thin-layer chromatography to evaluate the presence of some flavonoids and aromatic acids in the samples. This technique allowed the detection of caffeic acid in all the analyzed samples. The total flavonoids content was assayed by the colorimetric method using aluminum chloride, and the results were expressed in chrysin at 330 nm. A comparison between the SPF results and the total flavonoids contend was done and a direct relationship between most of the samples was observed, confirming the absorbing ultraviolet radiation property of the flavonoids collected by bees.

A realização deste trabalho objetivou a avaliação quantitativa da absorção da radiação UVB (290-320 nm) em oito amostras de própolis, incorporadas em base cosmética apropriada, sob a forma de extrato mole, originárias de diversas regiões com diferentes origens botânicas sendo duas de Minas Gerais, três de São Paulo, uma de Santa Catarina, uma do Rio Grande do Sul e outra da Pensilvânia - EUA. A estimativa de absorção foi feita através de método espectrofotométrico com medidas de absorbâncias na faixa entre 290 a 320 nm, tomadas de 5 em 5 nm. Cada medida de absorbância foi relacionada à intensidade e ao efeito eritemogênico da radiação em seu respectivo comprimento de onda. Os resultados tiveram como parâmetro o padrão de referência salicilato de homomentila, aprovado pela FDA para determinação de FPS in vivo. Foi obtido um perfil cromatográfico através de cromatografia em camada delgada para avaliação qualitativa de nossas amostras em relação a alguns flavonóides e ácidos aromáticos, o que nos permitiu constatar a presença de ácido cafeico em todas as amostras analisadas. Foram dosados flavonóides totais por método colorimétrico com cloreto de alumínio, expressos em crisina a 330 nm. Foi feita a comparação entre os resultados de FPS e flavonóides totais e observamos proporcionalidade direta entre a maioria das amostras, o que confirma a ação de absorção de radiação ultra-violeta por flavonóides colhidos pelas abelhas em plantas. / The aim of this work was to evaluate quantitatively the UVB absorption (290-320 nm) of propolis, contained in eight cosmetic samples as soft extract, from different botanical origins and several regions, such as Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul and Pennsylvania (USA). A spectrophotometric method using absorbance measurements in a range of 290-320 nm, taken at 5 nm intervals, was used to asses the absorbance. Each absorbance measurement was related to both intensity and erythemal effect of the radiation at its respective wavelength. Homosalate, which is approved by the FDA as reference standard, was used for the determination of SPF in vivo. Chromatograms of the samples were obtained by thin-layer chromatography to evaluate the presence of some flavonoids and aromatic acids in the samples. This technique allowed the detection of caffeic acid in all the analyzed samples. The total flavonoids content was assayed by the colorimetric method using aluminum chloride, and the results were expressed in chrysin at 330 nm. A comparison between the SPF results and the total flavonoids contend was done and a direct relationship between most of the samples was observed, confirming the absorbing ultraviolet radiation property of the flavonoids collected by bees.

Esta Tese apresenta duas revisões de literatura: 1. Síntese de aldeídos e cetonas a partir de compostos de enxofre. 2. Síntese de benzaldeídos deuterados. E descrita a reação de sulfenilação de benzil fenil sulfonas, conduzindo a um novo \"synthon\", α-metiltio-benzil fenil sulfona (1). Y-C6H4-CH(SCH3)SO2C6H5 Y = H,CH3,Cl,OCH3,NO2,CN. É relatada a hidrólise ácida de (1), fornecendo benzaldeídos para substituídos. É proposta a decomposição térmica de (1), como um método novo de síntese de benzaldeídos para substituídos. É descrita uma reação de um passo só, envolvendo alquilação e decomposição térmica de (1) e fornecendo cetonas aromáticas. Este método permite sintetizar cetonas contendo grupos sensíveis a ácidos. O método pirolítico é aplicado à síntese de aldeídos aromáticos deuterados, que são obtidos em 98% de pureza isotópica. Os benzaldeídos deuterados e não deuterados são obtidos em bons rendimentos, não se notando diferenças provenientes do caráter eletrônico dos substituintes no anel. É apresentada uma discussão sobre os aspectos mecanísticos da decomposição térmica. / This thesis presents two literature reviews: 1. Synthesis of aldehydes and ketones, starting from the sulphur containing compounds 2. Synthesis of deuterated benzaldehydes. The sulphenylation reaction of benzyl phenyl sulphones, leading to a new \"synthon\", α-methylthio-benzyl phenyl sulphone (1), is described. Y-C6H4-CH(SCH3)SO2C6H5 Y = H,CH3,OCH3,Cl,NO2,CN. Acid hydrolyses of (1) to give p-substituted benzaldehydes are reported. A novel reaction - Thermal Oecomposition of (1) - as an improved method for the synthesis of p-substituted benzaldehydes is proposed. One pot reaction, which consists of alkylation and thermal decomposition of (1), to give aromatic ketones, is reported. Some ketones containing acid-sensitive groups are obtained. The pyrolyt ic method is applied to the synthesis of deuterated aromatic aldehydes, which are obtained in 98% of isotopic purity. The yields of the deuterated and non-deuterated benzaldehydes are good, and do not show any dependence on the eletronic character of the para substituents. A discussion on some mechanistic aspects of the thermal decomposition is presented.

A investigação de degradação de compostos-modelo de lignina por meios eletroquímicos integra a linha de pesquisa desenvolvida neste grupo há um certo tempo. Neste trabalho utilizou-se 4 compostos-modelo de lignina cujos anéis aromáticos representam unidade siringila, ou seja, três átomos de oxigênio ligados ao anel. São eles: 2-(4-metoxifenóxi)-1-(3,4,5-trimetoxifenil)-etanona (CM-I), 2-(2-metoxifenóxi)-1-(3,4,5-trimetoxifenil)-etanona (CM-II) e os dois álcoois correspondentes (CM-III) e (CM-IV), respectivamente. Para sintetizar estes 4 compostos, foi necessário realizar uma rota sintética que se iniciou com a metilação do ácido 3,4,5-tri-hidroxibenzóico até chegar ao composto chave 2-bromo-1-(3,4,5-trimetoxifenil)-etanona (4). A etapa de bromação da 3,4,5-trimetoxiacetofenona (3) foi a mais problemática pois em vários métodos distintos de bromação a cetona dibromada era obtida como produto secundário. A reação de bromocetona com o fenol 2- ou 4-metoxilado conduziu às cetonas (CM-I) e (CM-II) desejadas. Ambas foram reduzidas aos álcoois (CM-III) e (CM-IV) com borohidreto de sódio Os experimentos eletroquímicos de voltametria cíclica dos 4 compostos-modelo usando anodo de Pt em acetonitrila contendo perclorato de sódio revelaram que suas oxidações eram irreversíveis. Eletrólises preparativas foram feitas principalmente em metanol contendo metóxido de sódio. Quanto à eletrólises preparativas das duas cetonas CM-I e CM-II, observou-se que na oxidação de CM-I houve formação de mistura complexa de produtos enquanto que na de CM-II, parte do material de partida foi recuperado. Já nas oxidações dos álcoois, os resultados obtidos dependeram principalmente da posição da metoxila no grupo fenóxi ligado à cadeia lateral. Quando esta metoxila se encontrava na posição orto, as misturas de reação continha como componente principal o material de partida. Com a metoxila na posição para, dois compostos principais foram isolados, e os seus dados espectroscópicos são coerentes com os esperados para derivados do 1,4-dioxaspiro-[4,5]deca-6,9-dieno. / The investigation of the electrochemical degradation of lignin model compounds has been part of the research developed in this group for a certain time. In the present work 4 lignin model compounds, in which one of the aromatic rings is representative of syringyl units, were used. They are, 2-(4-methoxyphenoxy)-l(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-ethanone ( CM-I), 2-(2-methoxyphenoxy )-1-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-ethanone (CM-II) and their corresponding alcohols (CM-III) and (CM-IV), respectively. To synthesize these 4 compounds, a synthetic route was developed, beginning with the methylation of the 3,4,5-trhydroxy-benzoic acid. The key compound of this synthetic route was 2-bromo-1-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-ethanone (4). The bromination of the 3,4,5-trimethoxyacetophenone was the most problematic step, because the dibromated ketone was obtained as a by product in distinct methods. The reaction of the 2-bromo-1-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-ethanone with 2- and 4- methoxylated phenols afforded CM-I and CM-II. Both were reduced to CM-III and CM-IV with sodium borohydride. The cyclic voltammetric experiments of the 4 model compounds using platinum anode in MeCN/ 0,1 M NaClO4 revealed that their oxidations were irreversible. Preparative electrolyses were made mostly in MeOH/MeONa. The electrolyses of the two ketones showed that when CM-I was oxidized a complex mixture of products was obtained, while in the oxidation of CM-II part of the starting material was recovered. In the oxidations of the two alcohols, the results obtained depended mostly on the position of the methoxy group in the phenoy group connected to the carbon-carbon side chain. When the methoxy group was at the ortho position, the reaction mixture contained the starting material as the main product. When this methoxy group was at the para position, two major compounds were isolated, and their spectroscopic data are consistent with those expected for 1,4-dioxaspiro-[4,5]-deca-6,9-diene derivates.

The objective of this study is to extract phenolic compounds from nettle and melissa by using microwave and ultrasound and to compare these methods with conventional extraction and maceration, respectively. Extraction of melissa essential oil was also studied. In extraction of phenolics, effects of extraction time (5-20 min for microwave / 5-30 min for ultrasound) and solid to solvent ratio (1:10, 1:20, 1:30 g/ml) on total phenolic content (TPC) were investigated for microwave and ultrasound extractions. Different powers were also studied for ultrasound extraction. In addition, effect of solvent type (water, ethanol, ethanol-water mixture at 50:50 v/v) was analyzed and water was found as better solvent. Optimum conditions for microwave extraction of phenolics were determined as 10 min and 1:30 solid to solvent ratio for nettle, and as 5 min and 1:30 solid to solvent ratio for melissa. TPC at these conditions for nettle and melissa extracts were 24.6 and 145.8 mg GAE/g dry material, respectively. Optimum conditions for ultrasound extraction was 30 min, 1:30 solid to solvent ratio, and 80% power for nettle and 20 min, 1:30 solid to solvent ratio, and 50% power for melissa. TPC at these conditions for nettle and melissa were 23.9 and 105.5 mg GAE/g dry material, respectively. Major phenolic acids were determined as naringenin in nettle and rosmarinic acid in melissa. Major aromatic compounds in melissa essential oil were found as limonene, citral, and caryophyllene oxide. Yields of essential oil obtained by microwave and hydrodistillation were 4.1 and 1.8 mg oil/g dry sample, respectively.

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Aromatic donor-acceptor interactions have been utilized by the Iverson group in the development of abiotic molecules, called aedamers, that achieve new folding motifs, intermolecular association in heteroduplexes, and new material properties. These molecules exploit the interaction between the electron-rich 1,5-dialkoxynapthalene (DAN) and electron-deficient 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic diimide (NDI) units in a face-centered stacking geometry in aqueous solution. This dissertation describes the use of DAN-NDI interactions in the realm of peptides and proteins to expand the scope for applications of this interaction. This work specifically focuses on three areas of aromatic donor-acceptor interactions: achieving protein behavior with abiotic molecules, introducing the interaction into natural peptides, and utilizing the interaction in the intermolecular association of an abiotic molecule and a natural peptide. Chapter 2 refines the model of aggregation of an amphiphilic aedamer, which forms a hydrogel upon heating. The aedamer behaves similarly to proteins called amlyoids, which form fibrils and plaques in vivo which have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including Alzheimer's. Chapter 3 describes the synthesis of [alpha]-amino acids with DAN- and NDI-containing side chains. These amino acids can be used in a peptide model of [beta]-hairpin secondary structure. The model system can determine whether aromatic donor-acceptor interactions are useful in stabilizing peptide and protein structure. Chapter 4 describes the study of the Anchored Periplasmic Expression System (APEx) for use in screening random peptide libraries. A random peptide library is used to determine the sequence of a natural peptide, potentially containing electron-rich aromatic residues, which could bind an NDI oligomer with high affinity for use as a protein expression tag. Chapter 5 describes work toward the use of cyclic NDI bisintercalators for binding both the major and minor grooves of a specific sequence of DNA simultaneously, in addition to the use of cyclic NDI and DAN molecules for the further study of NDI-DAN interactions in abiotic intermolecular assembiles. Overall, this work has advanced the application of aromatic donor-acceptor interactions in peptides and should serve as a foundation for the future study of this interaction in protein folding and behavior in biological systems. / text