Le champ dans lequel se situe cette HDR est celui de la médiation des savoirs. <br> Ce qui nous intéresse plus particulièrement dans cette médiation, ce sont :<br> - Le rôle que jouent les Technologies de l'Information et de la communication ;<br> - Le rôle que joue l'organisation que se donnent les individus en situation<br> - Le rôle que jouent les relations qui se construisent entre les individus, les outils et les savoirs. Ces trois points pouvant se regrouper sous l'appellation d'artefact <br><br> Bien que je ne souhaite pas développer une approche communicationnelle de la complexité, j'essaie d'envisager la communication comme un processus plus large que les champs disciplinaires qui la questionnent pour avoir une vision plus large, plus anthropologique dans laquelle la communication est considérée comme une construction humaine, comme un outil de la culture commune mais utiliser avec des règles établies dans un contrat situé. A travers cette approche je souhaite clarifier le rôle de la contextualisation de la communication sur la médiation des savoirs. C'est-à-dire que je souhaite questionner la nature intentionnelle, communicationnelle, éducative des outils à travers les modes d'utilisation au sein d'une communication socialement élaborée et collectivement validée. Ce questionnement devrait permettre de dépasser les approches disciplinaires qui envisagent les TIC comme des ressources pour l'action. Elle devrait permettre également d'envisager les Tic et leurs usages comme un système qui met en relation un utilisateur, un outil, une connaissance, une situation et un contexte. Nous pourrions appeler ce système relationnel : « système artefactuel ». <br><br> Le système artefactuel serait donc un système relationnel et le terme d'artefact ne désignerait plus l'objet ou l'outil, mais le système représentatif, un système de pensée, qui se construit dans la relation. En SIC, nous pourrions envisager un artefact communicationnel comme un système de pensée qui autorise la compréhension d‘une situation de communication dans un contexte qui donne une intentionnalité communicative aux outils. <br><br> Le programme de recherche qui pourrait se construire à partir de ce positionnement s'articulerait autour de deux axes : l'un théorique et l'autre pratique. <br><br> Les questions théoriques que nous souhaitons éclaircir sont significatives d'une phase intermédiaire dans la construction de notre champ de recherche en SIC. Cette phase est nécessairement ouverte à plusieurs possibles, c'est-à-dire à un questionnement communicationnel aux frontières des différentes disciplines sollicitées. Plusieurs pistes seront donc revisitées : - Nous pensons particulièrement aux situations de communication instrumentée ; aux phénomènes de régulation intra et interindividuel ; au contrat communicationnel qui s'établit dans les espaces communs de communication... - La question de l'identification des processus interindividuels ou collectifs d'appropriation des instruments de communication qui renvoie aux pratiques induites par l'usage des TIC ou aux modes de contractualisation qui se construisent entre acteurs individuels ou collectifs et dans le cadre de la communication des connaissances. - La question des situations de communication sous-tendues par une intention communicationnelle, éducative, sociale qui renvoie aux rapports qu'entretiennent la communication et le champ d'investigation. <br><br> Sur le terrain des TIC, trois questions que nous avons déjà étudiées avec des approches disciplinaires retiennent notre attention. La question des interfaces. Traditionnellement traitée par la psychologie cognitive et l'informatique relève pourtant aujourd'hui d'un dialogue « homme-machine-homme », c'est-à-dire d'un problème de prélèvement et de traitement d'information mais surtout d'une mise en relation instrumentée, médiatisée par un média informatique. La question des connaissances. Traditionnellement traités par la psychologie cognitive et les sciences de l'éducation lorsqu'elles isolent le sujet de la situation de communication dans laquelle se déroule l'apprentissage et du contexte situé des usages des TIC. <br><br> Que cela soit sur les questions théoriques ou de terrain, j'ai déjà des résultats de recherche que j'ai exposés dans plusieurs articles et communication depuis 1994. Pour exemple :<br> - La recherche que nous menons actuellement (avec l'INRP et des profs de collège) sur l'usage des Tic dans l'enseignement des mathématiques aux collèges, montre que ce sont les contraintes à la fois didactique et communicationnelle imposées par le dispositif qui favorisent la modification des gestes professionnels de l'enseignant et particulièrement sa communication orale qu'il appelle « son cours ».<br> - Dans l'ouvrage « Comment penser la communication des connaissances » (1999) j'ai discuté comment un contrat de communication implicite permet de structurer l'activité exploratoire d'élève qui travaille en réseau.<br> - Dans l'ouvrage « Rencontre avec Watzlawick » (1998) j'ai proposé une approche du multimédia comme système de communication.<br> - Dans ma thèse (1994) j'ai montré comment les stratégies d'exploration adoptées par les sujets sont influencées par le mode de présentation des informations et le type de communication utilisateur-ordinateur. <br><br> Bien que ces résultats soient intéressants, ils n'en demeurent pas moins, très réducteurs car dans chacune de ces recherches je ne me suis pas intéressé à l'environnement pris dans sa totalité, mais à ce qui dans cet environnement était pertinent au regard des disciplines mises en jeu. Aujourd'hui, à ces recherches, je souhaite introduire une dimension locale et contextuelle car la communication des savoirs via les TIC ne peut pas être pensée indépendamment des interactions humaines organisées par un contrat de communication qui s'énonce moins comme une suite de règles faisant loi que comme une série d'énonciations a priori, impliquant des possibles autant que des impossibles, des incertitudes et des confusions autant que de certitudes et d'axiomatisations dans un contexte révélateur d'un « provisoire décrit ». <br><br> Dès lors, les artefacts révélés de fait par leur existence empirique comme un système de pensée qui amplifie les processus communicationnels de la médiation des savoirs deviennent étudiables comme une instance concrète des Technologies de l'Information et de la Communication observable dans la dynamique des usages comme l'apparente maîtrise par et sur l'individu utilisateur. <br><br> Après avoir largement utilisé la méthode expérimentale pour les résultats dont je viens de parler, il est devenu clair pour moi que la posture vers laquelle j'allais ne pouvait plus uniquement utiliser cette méthode. Ma posture ayant évolué d'une étude de « Qu'est-ce que permettent de faire les TIC ? » à « Que fait-on avec les TIC ? » Et particulièrement en m'intéressant aux interactions collectives qui construisent un savoir partagé dans un espace commun de communication, il me semble intéressant pour moi d'utiliser une approche ethnologique qui semble autoriser plus facilement une étude des modes de contextualisation et contractualisation de la communication. Nous sommes passés d'une approche qui envisage les NTIC comme des outils pour agir et particulièrement pour « transmettre des savoirs » à une approche plus anthropologique qui autorise l'étude d'artefact communicationnel à travers une autre réalité qui relève de la « médiation des savoirs ».

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This research project examines the potential of gleaned material fragments to inform a practice of designing artefacts for production. The project presents processes of working with material fragments in the context of newly designed artefact examples to demonstrate a capacity to explore and apply the expressive potential of material within my design practice.

Near‐infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIR) is investigated as a method of non‐invasive, in situ analysis of contemporary textile material. Besides providing spectral signatures, the advantages of NIR include the non‐contact nature of the reflectance technique and the use of a remote, flexible probe. A spectral database of well‐defined reference material has been collected. This was recorded using a standardised protocol taking into account the need to interrogate objects within a collection. The differentiation of silk and synthetic polyamide can pose particular problems for curators of historic textiles due to the similarities in their visual appearance. NIR spectroscopy coupled with multivariate analysis is investigated for the differentiation of the polyamide sub‐classes, found extensively within textile collections. Two multivariate methods of classification have been applied and it is shown that, with the appropriate spectral processing and calibration, both of these techniques are appropriate for sub‐class discrimination. Synthetic polyamides are frequently found in conjunction with natural organic materials, and are often exposed to the same pest treatments as natural polymers. In the event of an infestation there are a number of eradication measures possible, including the application of raised and lowered temperatures. However, these treatments take unaged aliphatic polyamides above, and well below, their glass transition temperature, respectively. For this reason the stability of new and aged polyamide textile material has been investigated. Polyamide 6,6 test material was tested ‘as received’ and in an artificially aged condition. Samples were subsequently subject to ‐30°C, room temperature or 58°C. In addition, samples were treated with and without the application of a load, enabling an assessment of risk if treated whilst hanging and supporting their own weight. Structural alterations were monitored using polarized and non‐polarized mid infrared spectroscopy, tensile testing and differential scanning calorimetry. In addition, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis creep experiments were carried out to supplement the information provided by the in situ creep tests. It is evident from the results that the thermal treatments have a significant effect on the behaviour and structure of the aged polyamide. The implication for in situ treatment of this material in collections is clear, and must therefore be approached with caution. Analysis of the experimental data suggest that the changes observed can be related to the degree of crystallinity produced by the changes in temperature and by the presence of stress during treatment.

Swedish schools have during the last few years started to providing pupils in high school with tablet-computers. By doing interviews I examine how pupils in high school use tablet-computers in different ways and how that affect their studies. From a sociocultural perspective and with the concept of artefacts I analyze how suitable tablet-computers are for studies on this level of education. My results show that the tablet-computers are used as the pupils primary study tool. They are available to all pupils and can be used in most parts of their studies and this creates new opportonities in how to interact with collective knowledge and with other people. The pupils in this study do not think that the tablet computers, at this pint are suitable when it comes to using them for examinations, advanced visual design and creating more extensive texts. My conclusion is that tabet-computers have qualities that could contribute to high school pupils studies in a meaningful way. However the strategies through which they are implemented are critical to whether tablets-computers actually will improve pupils studies or not.

National museums are spaces where stories of the past are told through the display and interpretation of material culture. The narratives that are created in this way reflect the ways in which the nation wants to be seen at that particular moment, and are often embedded in the larger political and social contexts of that time. This thesis looks at the National Museum of Scotland as having three levels of narrative: that of the museum as a physical space and national institution, that of the temporary exhibitions it hosts and develops, and, most crucially, as a collection of important and iconic objects. By tracing the artefacts that were given a central role in various exhibitions over the life of the museum, the narratives of nation and history which were most valuable at that time can be uncovered. The two permanent and five temporary exhibitions profiled in this work act as windows into the life of the museum, and the goals and challenges it had at that moment. The thesis begins with the story of museum history in Scotland, from the 1780 formation of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland to the debates in the 1990s about the potential form and contents of a new Museum of Scotland. From there we look at two temporary exhibitions in the 1980s which inspired the Museum of Scotland, before examining some more recent temporary and touring exhibitions – a pair that came to Scotland from Russia, and one that left Edinburgh to travel among other Scottish museums. The final chapter returns to the realm of what it means to have a national museum, as it investigates the 2006 rebranding that changed the Museum of Scotland into the National Museum of Scotland, and what the new nomenclature signals about the objects and narratives within. All together, this work is both the story of a particular national museum and an investigation into the ways in which national history is continuously made and remade for the public through the display of artefacts from the past.

The purpose of this thesis was to investigate gait analysis methods used to minimise soft tissue artefact (STA) when measuring the kinematics and kinetics of human gait. STA affects all gait analysis methods and is considered to be one of the major sources of error in clinical motion analysis. A systematic review was initially performed to quantify the magnitude of STA for different areas of the lower limbs during gait analysis. Despite the high quality of the existing literature, the results of the review were inconclusive regarding the exact magnitude of STA during human gait analysis. Previously, there were no methods used consistently throughout the reviewed studies to assess STA. The primary aim of this thesis was to determine the most valid method for minimising STA during human gait analysis. / Whilst the systematic review provided equivocal results on the magnitude of STA, it was able to confirm that STA at the tibia is less than for the femur segment. As a result, the tibial segment was investigated to determine marker locations that are least susceptible to STA. Twenty unimpaired young adults were included in the study and were instrumented with 36 markers, including 10 markers on each shank segment. The markers were well spread across the tibial segment in order to assess as many locations as possible. Four markers located on the tibia were less susceptible to STA. These were the proximal and distal anterior tibial crest markers as well as the medial and lateral malleolar markers. These markers were rigid to one another thus were rigid to the underlying bone. / In order to assess the modelling methods proposed in the literature a gold standard comparison was required. A potential new gold standard method was identified as 3-D freehand ultrasound (3-DUS). This was believed to be a non-invasive and cost effective method for locating internal bony structures. A validation of the new method (3-DUS) against MRI was performed to ensure the new gold standard was a valid methodology. The two methods, 3-DUS and MRI were compared for their accuracy in determining the location of the HJC within the pelvis segment. Twenty unimpaired participants were included in this study. The participants were of variable ages and physical composition. The difference between 3-DUS and MRI determined distance between the left and right HJC was 4.0 ± 2.3mm. It was determined that the results from 3-DUS were clinically not significantly different to MRI. The results of this investigation indicated that 3-DUS could be used as a gold standard measurement for three dimensional gait analysis (3-DGA) research. / The new gold standard method was used to validate existing 3-DGA modelling methods to determine which obtained the most accurate location of the HJC. To date, the greatest clinical application for gait analysis is as a test for people with central nervous system disorders associated with spasticity, especially children with cerebral palsy (CP) (Simon 2004). For this reason, 53 patients with gait abnormalities who had been referred to the Royal Children’s Hospital gait laboratory for a 3-DGA were tested. The participant sample represented patients who were referred to the Hugh Williamson Gait Analysis Laboratory (HWGAL). This was apparent because from 2008-2009 69% of patients at HWGAL had a diagnosis of CP, of the sample included in this study, 67% had a CP diagnosis. / Patients underwent a 3-DGA in addition to a 3-DUS of their left and right femoral heads. Resultant ultrasounds were assessed for the quality of the images and 46 patients were included for data analysis. Seven different methods were investigated for the determination of the HJC and four of these were analysed in two different ways, as such there were 11 models compared to 3-DUS. The Harrington et al method obtained the most accurate and repeatable results where the 3-D location error was 14.3 ± 8.0mm. That method considerably outperformed the functional techniques that had previously been proposed in the literature. This highlighted the importance of testing research techniques in target populations. / To conclude, this thesis has identified locations on the tibia which are most rigid to the underlying bone as well as a new gold standard measurement tool suitable for use in 3-D gait analysis research. The thesis has also demonstrated the validity of using functional methods for determining the HJC in pathological populations. Limitations of previous research were identified, including a lack of translation of research findings into clinical practice. Future work following on from this thesis should aim to address this issue.

This thesis is the micro-history of Roger Machado, who is best known as Leicester Herald for Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III, and the senior herald, Richmond King of Arms, for Henry VII. Prior to this thesis, Machado has only been sparsely considered by scholars because he is elusive in the historical record. There is, in the College of Arms, his extant memorandum book, but otherwise, sources referring to him are few and far between. However, in the 1970s, Machado’s Southampton residence was excavated, which unearthed a rich artefact assemblage associated with his occupancy. This discovery has allowed for a fresh perspective on Machado’s life. This thesis, therefore, uses both documentary and archaeological sources to unlock the man from the records, and consequently, places a strong emphasis on the importance of interdisciplinary research. By pursuing a micro-historical approach that focusses on Machado’s engagement with objects, this thesis uses Machado as a window into the world in which he lived. Machado lived through the later years of the Wars of the Roses and through the entire reign of the Tudor dynasty’s first monarch, Henry VII. Therefore, his life is well placed to enable this thesis to consider broader themes. The first chapter discusses the micro-historical approach. The second chapter discusses how Machado, as a foreigner, came to work and live in England, how he came to join the exiled Henry Tudor, and examines the herald and Office of Arms in the fifteenth century. The third chapter considers the ceremonial role that Machado and the heralds played at the Yorkist and early Tudor courts. The fourth chapter considers Machado’s life and home in early Tudor Southampton, using the objects excavated from his house and others recorded in his extant inventory. The fifth chapter discusses how Machado would have used such objects in dining.

L’observation des productions actuelles fait apparaitre une tendance à l’hybridation des disciplines. Ce constat touche en particulier un type de pratique design, qui s’oriente de plus en plus vers la conception d’objets en petites séries ou en pièces uniques, interrogeant le rapport de l’usager aux espaces familiers et plus spécifiquement à la sphère intime. Bien que la plupart des designers refusent le rapprochement de leur travail avec les Arts Plastiques, il n’en demeure pas moins que certains d’entre eux adoptent des démarches analogues à celles des plasticiens. La formulation de cette hypothèse interroge la validité des catégories en vigueur et la légitimité des lois qui président à leur constitution. Par ailleurs, la production des designers qui intègrent une démarche similaire à celles des artistes se construit sur un mode évolutif, faisant croître l’objet vers l’installation, une forme de pénétrable que peut expérimenter le spectateur/usager. Il suffit d’examiner les variations d’échelles et la répétition modulaire créant une architecture mouvante chez Ronan et Erwan Bouroullec pour comprendre les glissements opérés entre l’unité et l’environnement qu’elle construit. La manipulation des échelles questionne, au cœur de l’espace même (qu’il s’agisse du cadre institutionnel de l’exposition ou de la sphère personnelle de chaque individu), la classification des objets, ainsi que leur hiérarchisation. Ces problématiques sont propres à un type de pratique, dont la poïétique use du détournement des produits de la nature et, notamment, des trois règnes animal, végétal et minéral. La transposition de pratiques naturalistes visant à établir un dépaysement par l’objet (au sens d’un déplacement hors d’un contexte habituel) découle d’une réflexion autour des modalités de l’hybridation. Ainsi, lorsqu’on se penche sur les textes jalonnant l’histoire naturelle et, en particulier sur ceux traitant des problématiques de classification, d’Aristote à Pline l’Ancien, en passant par la nomenclature de Carl von Linné, on remarque la récurrence (ou « survivance » pour reprendre la formule initiée par Georges Didi-Huberman), d’éléments situés dans l’entre-deux. Ces « types », que nous pouvons qualifier d’« aléatoires » révèlent un déplacement constant de la norme et questionnent la détermination du monstre. À partir de quel moment pouvons-nous juger du caractère anormal de tel élément ? N’existe-t’il pas des objets, qui, tout en présentant tous les « symptômes » du monstre coïncident malgré tout avec les modèles établis ? L’analyse des pratiques actuelles convoquant des démarches de création à la croisée des Arts Plastiques et du design révèle une influence profonde de ce type de fabrique pour un imaginaire scientifique, qui prend sa source dans le theatrum mundi des cabinets de curiosités. D’ailleurs, on observe, depuis le début des années 1990 (et surtout suite à la constitution de la collection d’art contemporain Curios & Mirabilia par Jean-Hubert Martin en 1993, visant à confronter un lieu chargé d’histoire, le château d’Oiron à la production d’artistes divers) une recrudescence des expositions empruntant la forme des cabinets de curiosités, afin de susciter un intérêt renouvelé pour l’objet d’art et en particulier les échos foisonnants entre les artefacts (œuvres et objets d’art, même s’ils prennent l’apparence d’installation) et l’univers poétique de la nature, manifestation viscérale d’un retour aux origines. Ainsi, l’emprunt symbolique de la figure des « zoophytes » ou plantes-animaux, mentionnés dans les traités d’histoire naturelle les plus anciens nous permet d’interroger la transversalité des pratiques artistiques qui cherchent à provoquer un décloisonnement des disciplines, en faisant de l’objet une entité située à la croisée des démarches de création. / The observation of the actual artistic productions shows a trend towards a hybridization of disciplines. This statement concerns particularly a type of design practices which is increasingly shifting towards objects manufactured in small quantity, even in unique pieces questioning the relations between the users and their familiar spaces and more specifically their intimate sphere. Even though most designers reject the comparison of their production with plastic arts, we can see that some of them have adopted approaches similar to those of plasticians. The formulation of this hypothesis brings up the questions of the validity of classifications and the legitimacy of the laws presiding to their constitution. Furthermore, the production of designers who integrate similar approaches to those of artists is built on an evolutive mode, the object being developed towards art installation, a form of penetrability a spectator/user can experience. By examining the scales variations and the modular repetition creating a fluid architecture in Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec design, we can understand the shifts operated between the piece and the environment it builds. Scales manipulation questions at the heart of the space itself the established objects classifications as well as their hierarchization (in domestic space and in exhibitions too).These issues are specific to a type of practice, which the poetic uses, of diverted natural products and especially the three systems : vegetal, animal and mineral. The transposition of naturalistic practices aiming at bringing a change through the object ( in the sense of placing it out of the usual context ) derives from considerations around the processes of hybridization. Thus, when one looks at natural history writings, and, in particular, those of Aristotle, Pliny the Elder or the nomenclature of Carl von Linné, we notice the recurrence ( or” survivance” to use the expression initiated by Georges Didi- Huberman) of elements located in an in-between space. Those types that we can describe as “random practices” reveal a constant displacement of the norms and question the determination of the monster. At which moment, can we designate an element as being abnormal? Aren’t there objects which, while presenting all the characteristics of the monster, coincide nonetheless with established models ? The analysis of actual practices standing at a crossroad between plastic arts and design reveals a profound influence from this type of process for a scientific imaginary inspired by the theatrum mundi of the curiosities cabinets. Moreover, we can observe since the beginning of the 1990ies (in particular, following the constitution of the contemporary art collection “Curios & Mirabilia” by Hubert Martin, aiming at confronting a place charged with history , Oiron Castle, to the production of various artists) a resurgence of exhibitions using curio cabinets forms. The aim is to renew the interest in artifacts and especially the relations of those manufactured objects and the poetic universe of nature, a manifestation of visceral attachment to primitive origins. Thus, the symbolic use of the figure of “zoophytes” or animal-plants, mentioned in the most ancient natural history treaties helps to show the transversality of artistic practices trying to dismantle the partitions between disciplines by placing the object as an entity at the crossroad between the creation processes. Through artists, designers and actors of institutions interviews, we can identify too major types of practices inscribed in a fertile prolongation of nature : a type of art which uses the formal aspects of flora and fauna to create a common vocabulary for art and design, alongside with a type of production transposing natural mechanisms which become creation protocols applied to the conception of objects.

Three cave sites, Nelson Bay Cave on the coast, Kangkara in an intermontane valley and Boomplaas some 80 km inland in the southern Cape Province, South Africa, were excavated between 1970 and 1979. Nearly 225 000 stone artefacts from the Later Stone Age sequence dating within the last 20 000 years are described from these three sites and are related to micro- and macroevolutionary changes at a regional and sub-continental level to provide a model for change in the Later Stone Age. The classification scheme was designed to highlight inter- and intra-site variability through time and focused on analysis of the successive stages in the reduction sequence from raw material nodule to finished tool. Linear regression was used to test for interdependence and independence of variables and the significance of changes in size and shape of untrimmed flakes and scrapers was assessed. In the case of the scrapers, samples from the three southern Cape sites and from the eastern and northern Cape were compared and tested for significance with Mann Whitney and Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample non-parametric tests. The results indicate two levels of change through time, that involving the appearance of innovations that can be described as macroevolutionary, and that involving the subsequent modification of the frequency, size and shape of these innovations and other artefacts already part of the toolkit that can be described as microevolutionary change. By comparison with modern technological data, innovative changes represent the diffusion and acceptance of major advances in tool technology that are predictable from trends observed in modern technology. Post-innovative or microevolutionary changes, on the other hand, take the form of oscillations around a gradually changing mean that are similar to changes in style or fashion in the modern idiom. The hypothesis that technological change was stimulated by environmental change was tested by comparing the timing of technological changes with those seen in oxygen isotope ratios in a Cango Cave stalagmite, charcoals from woody plants brought into Boomplaas Cave for firewood, small mammals caught by owls and eaten at Boomplaas and Nelson Bay Cave, and larger mammals hunted by people at all three sites. The results indicate that there is no consistent relationship between changes in the stone tool technology and environmental change. There is, however, a coincidence in the timing of changes in the larger mammals hunted and the stone tool technology that took place over a relatively short span of time between 12 000 and 11 000 B.P., post-dating major environmental adjustments at the end of the last glacial cycle by some 3000 years. Technological changes that took place between 8000 and 6000 B.P. were not coincident with a change in the animals hunted, nor with an equally sudden shift in environmental data, while a change in economy from hunting to herding within the last 2000 years was not accompanied by a change in the stone tool technology although pottery was added to the toolkit. There is thus a very complex relationship between economy, technology and environmental change that is not readily predictable. The sequence in the southern Cape can be described in terms of punctuated equilibria, but the times of rapid change in technology, economy and climate do not always coincide. In the technological system periods of relative stasis have been labelled the Robberg, Albany and Wilton industries. The content, dating and evidence for subsistence during the Later Stone Age south of the Zambesi is reviewed from several hundred dated horizons at over 160 sites and although there is some spatial variability, the sequence of technological changes is much the same throughout the sub-continent. This confirms the long-held belief that the innovations that spread through the sub-continent were diffused over a very wide area of the Old World as the result of a well developed network of intercommunications during the Stone Age, while at times population migrations also took place. Microevolutionary changes, on the other hand, tend to be more regionally specific and may have been stimulated by different cues.