Traditional accounts of ancient law make the following generalizations: Athenian law was a system of amateurs and, consequently, arbitrary and irrational. Roman law, by contrast, gradually became a system of specialized professionals. Legal scholars (jurists) interpreted and developed the law and advocates represented litigants. Thanks to specialization, Roman law became rational and consistent--a foundation for Rome's imperial administration as well as many modern legal systems. Bruce Frier has argued in a landmark book that this development ("the rise of the Roman jurists") began in the last century of the republic, and that it was endorsed by Cicero. By examining how Cicero and the Attic orators discuss legal expertise and litigation, I seek to revise this standard picture in two ways. First, I argue that Athenians were not hostile to legal knowledge per se, but to expertise in litigation. I find, furthermore, that learning from the laws was part of the moral training of Athenian citizens. I then argue that Cicero's attitude towards legal expertise was not progressive, but reactionary. Litigation was a moral issue in the Roman republic no less than in democratic Athens. In Cicero's opinion, the true legal expert--whether an orator, a jurist, or a statesman--is a figure with the moral authority to resolve conflicts without debate. Cicero promulgates an ideology of law wherein litigation ideally would be unnecessary, and citizens' disputes would be resolved by their "natural" superiors. / text

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Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / On title page: MPhil in Antieke Kulture. Bibliography. Also available via the Internet.

Thesis (MPhil (Ancient Studies)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / The main purpose of this study is to investigate and describe the differences between the fifth-century city states of Athens and Sparta. The approach I use is that of altérité (“otherness”). I look in particular at four of the most important social phenomena: women, slaves, the army and the political structures. In these respects there are extensive differences between the two city states: Athens acquired its slaves through buying them or as spoils of war over time and on an individual basis; Sparta conquered and enslaved a whole nation, the Messenians, early on to serve permanently as their slaves. Athenian women enjoyed no social or legal freedom or rights; Spartan women enjoyed all these rights and could own and inherit property and goods. In Athens, since the time of Themistocles the fleet was regarded as much more important than the infantry; Sparta had very early on developed a professional infantry which was regarded as the best right through the Greek-speaking world. Athens started changing its constitution at a relatively late stage, but once started, continued to work on it until they attained an early form of democracy; Sparta never developed beyond the monarchical stage, but did adapt it to suit their needs. The second purpose of this study is to discover and attempt to explain why the above-mentioned differences are so great. The point here is not so much that Athens was the model city state which everybody tried to emulate, but rather that Sparta was the city state which was significantly different from any of the others.

When looking at Dark Age Greece, one of the most important sites to consider is Athens. The Dark Age was a transitional period between the fall of Mycenaean Greece of the Bronze Age, and Archaic Greece of the Iron Age. This period is called the Dark Age because the palaces that ruled the Mycenaean age collapsed, and with them fell civilization in mainland Greece. Writing, fine art, massive architecture, trade, and luxury goods disappear from mainland Greece. But Athens survived the fall of the Mycenaeans. In order to understand the reason why Athens survived one must look at what the causes of the fall of the Mycenaeans were. Theories range from raiders and invasion, to natural disasters, such as earthquakes, droughts, and plagues. One must also examine Greece itself. The landscape and climate of Greece have a large impact on the settlement of the Greeks. The land of Greece also affects what Greek communities were able to do economically, whether a city would be rich or poor. It is because Athens is located in Attica that it survived. Attica had the poorest soil in the Mycenaean world, and was the poorest of the major cities, therefore, when looking at the collapse of the Mycenaeans being caused by people, there would be no reason for said people to raid or invade Athens and Attica. It is because Athens survives that it is such an important site. Athens survived the fall of the Mycenaeans and in doing so acts as a refugee center and a jumping off point for the remaining Mycenaeans to flee east, to the Aegean islands and Anatolia. Athens also stayed occupied during the Dark Age and because of this it was able to make some advancements. In particular Athens was a leader in mainland Greece in the development of iron. Not only this, but Athens became a cultural center during the Dark Age, inventing both proto-geometric and geometric pottery. These styles were adopted by the rest of the Greek world, and Athens was looked to as the influence for these styles. It is because Athens was the poorest city and Attica the poorest area during the Mycenaean age that it survived. Because it survived it was able to continue to develop and in turn influence the rest of mainland Greece.

After the defeat of the Greek forces in the Lamian War the Athenians agreed to Antipater's demand for unconditional surrender. As result of the terms the Macedonian general demanded Phocion became pre-eminent in Athens for a few years from 322/1 to 319/8 B.C. It is my belief that, although he did not seek to become leader in Athens, Phocion none-the-less accepted his new role out of a sense of duty and a firm belief that he was the only person suited for the job. Here was a man whose logical, pragmatic and unemotional attitude to political and world affairs enabled him to rise above what he believed to be the short-sightedness of his contemporaries and accurately assess the future for Athens and the city-state's place in the new world order. Of course our picture of Phocion is taken, mainly, from Plutarch's encomiastic Life of Phocion. According to his account the Athenian general and statesman did not want war but peace and prosperity. He did not believe the Athenians capable of defeating Macedonia. Instead, he felt that the people should accept their new position in the world and make the best of the situation. It should not be forgotten, however, that Plutarch was writing at a time when Europe was under the yoke of the new superpower: Rome. He saw the benefits of living in Greece at a time when the city-states were no longer continually involved in internecine warfare. It was, perhaps, this appreciation of the state of his own world, gained with the benefit of hindsight, that gave rise to his admiration of (what he perceived to be) Phocion's foresight. Phocion appeared to understand, as Plutarch did, that there was no reason why Athens could not still be prosperous. Plutarch's Phocion saw the city-state's future as no longer being primarily reliant on military preparedness but rather on trade and sound economic policy. With the protection of the powerful Macedonian overlord Athens would be free to enjoy life in relative peace and prosperity. Ultimately, Plutarch has had a significant influence on our understanding and appreciation of Phocion the general, statesman and man. The aim of this paper then is, with the use of other primary and secondary sources, to look beyond Plutarch's encomium and attempt to find the real Phocion. In particular, I will be examining the aging general's role in Athenian affairs after the Lamian War. This pivotal time in Athenian history has received too little attention. Life in Athens changed dramatically after Antipater defeated the Greek forces at the Battle of Crannon. The Athenians lost their freedom and autonomy and were fated never to regain the hegemony of the Greeks. Moreover, they had failed to live up to the glorious deeds of their ancestors. It was Phocion's task to help his people to come to terms with this new state of affairs and to find a place for Athens in the new world order. And so, political life in Athens was turned upside down as democracy was changed to oligarchy.

In this thesis I set out to study the process through which special education teachers characterise and educate a group of pupils who are categorised as mentally handicapped. Teachers' perceptions of their pupils are reflected in their educational practice and constitute an important element in the complex and lengthy procedure during which a child is defined as mentally handicapped. The research examines these issues in practice by way of a case study of teachers in the Greater Athens Region of Greece. During the school years the label of mental handicap may be confirmed and maintained in a child's identity as he/she moves into adulthood. Schooling may also work in a positive way and provide for a child's eventual integration in the mainstream education and the community. It is this positive aspect of schooling which has become an inseparable part of the underlying principles in special education today. The Greek Education Act of 1985 concerns individuals with special educational needs and refers to the category of mentally handicapped, among other groups, as those with a right to education. As stated in the Act the scope of education is to provide for the balanced and effective development of the individuals concerned as well as for their mutual acceptance and integration in the community as a whole. The above principles laid down by the policy makers are loosely framed in the context of the Act and are open to interpretation by those who are involved in the practice of special education. Reference in the Act to "the balanced and effective development of the individuals and possibilities for their integration" may be defined in a variety of ways by the professionals involved in the system of special education. Among the latter the role of the teachers is a central one. Teachers are Expected to educate pupils who are already categorised as mentally handicapped and help them develop their potential and integrate as best as possible in the community. Depending on their personal experience, gained in the community, their training and their involvement in the system of special education, teachers may take different approaches in defining what mental handicap is and how education of the mentally handicapped pupils should and/or could be carried out. On the one hand teachers develop a professional ideology, that is, their conception of how their task should be carried out. On the other hand, faced with practical aspects of implementing such ideologies, teachers reach decisions as how to handle different cases in given situations. Thus, I am using the concept of teachers' perceptions of mental handicap to refer to the practical aspects of teaching the mentally handicapped as well as the teachers' own ideologies. The empirical research began with an exploratory study. This involved a sample of 10 teachers in 5 special schools in the study area. The results of the exploratory phase were then used for the design of the main research which concerned the study of 13 special schools with a sample of 40 teachers. In both exploratory and main research I have followed a research methodology based on the ethnographic approach in educational studies. This involved a flexible design to start the research and the use of observation and informal interview techniques in data collection. The results have been analysed mainly qualitatively. They show the range of criteria teachers in the sample are applying to identify their mentally handicapped pupils, criteria such as physical features or social and psychological characteristics of the pupils. They are not, however, applied in a universal manner by all the teachers. Variation in the criteria is analysed and conclusions are drawn that may be of use to further study in this area. As far as education of the mentally handicapped is concerned the results of my research point out the existence of a complex network of interactions within which teachers have to carry out their task. It involves elements both within and outside the schools where they teach, i. e., the attitude of the community as a whole and the general atmosphere at work. Teachers' approaches towards their mentally handicapped pupils may be formed through a process of interaction in different setups. In this research I am attempting to discover the outcomes of such interactions by studying teachers' practice of special education in the actual setting of the schools. I have sought to demonstrate that the outcome of teachers' interaction in each specific situation adds to a cluster of perceptions within which mental handicap is defined and dealt with. In some cases teachers may help maintain this already existing cluster, in other cases they may modify its form.

Originally presented as the author's Thesis (doctoral)--Universität Trier, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references (p. [295]-328) and indexes.

Originally presented as the author's thesis (doctoral)--Universität Trier, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references (p. [295]-328) and indexes.

Orientador: Paulo Ferreira de Araujo / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Educação Fisica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-13T21:16:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Florence_RachelBarbosaPoltronieri_D.pdf: 2556421 bytes, checksum: ff684c6ebf2a63fd63fb4c91d17db974 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: As possibilidades de discutir o desporto praticado pelas pessoas em condições de deficiência são inúmeras: rendimento diante das possibilidades agregadas com a sistematização de propostas adequadas através do deporto; os ganhos com as adaptações e inovações metodológicas; a adequação de material; possibilidades pedagógicas; os recursos tecnológicos como forma de maximizar as possibilidades; as inúmeras possibilidades mediadas pelos diferentes métodos de avaliações. Neste contexto a percepção de ganhos com a prática do desporto está presente no campo da saúde, social, político, além dos aspectos relacionados ao crescimento de pessoas a partir da ampliação de participação na sociedade. O presente trabalho justifica-se pelo envolvimento pessoal da pesquisadora, em relação à contribuição para a área da Educação Física Adaptada e para a pessoa em condição de deficiência. Objetivou-se investigar as particularidades ocorridas durante a trajetória dos atletas de ouro nas Paraolimpíadas de Atenas 2004 e as percepções sobre o sucesso dos sujeitos envolvidos: foram dezoito atletas em condições de deficiência visual e física, e dois atletas não deficientes, nas modalidades do judô, futebol de cinco, natação e atletismo. Para tanto, realizou-se uma pesquisa qualitativa do tipo estudo de caso descritivo cuja técnica para coleta de dados utilizou-se a entrevista semi-estruturada com êxito na sua aplicação de 100% da amostra, em seis Estados brasileiros, a saber: Paraná, Santa Catarina, Recife, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro e Minas Gerais. Utilizou-se a Análise de Conteúdo como forma de análise dos textos observados através dos recortes das entrevistas, nas categorias: I. A trajetória dos atletas no segmento escolar, II. A participação dos atletas nas aulas de Educação Física Escolar, III. O envolvimento com o desporto adaptado, IV. O olhar da mídia, V. O apoio familiar, VI. A importância do apoio financeiro e VII. As possíveis contribuições para com o desporto adaptado. Desta forma, concluímos que a prática desportiva pelas pessoas em condições de deficiência adquirida tem sua iniciação, em sua grande maioria, dentro de um contexto de (re)construção de vida, ou seja, após tornarem estáveis as alterações decorrentes da deficiência nos níveis orgânicos e/ou psicológicos. É neste momento que o desporto adaptado ganha importância na vida destas pessoas, com a conquista da segurança, a recuperação da autoestima, a ampliação das oportunidades e as percepções de potenciais, seja no campo social, nos benefícios orgânicos, nos benefícios familiares, nos benefícios sociais e nos benefícios financeiros. / Abstract: Discuss the possibilities of the sport practiced by people in conditions of deficiency are numerous: income in front of possibilities combined with the systematization of proposals through Sport, the earnings for adjustments and methodological innovations, the adequacy of equipment, educational opportunities, resources technology as a way to maximize the possibilities, the endless possibilities mediated by the different methods of assessments. In this context the perception of gains to sport is present in health, social, and political aspects than the growth of people from the expansion of participation in society. This work is justified by the personal involvement of the researcher, for contribution to the field of Adapted Physical Education and the person on condition of disability. The objective was to investigate the features during the course of athletes from skateboarding gold in Athens 2004 and the perceptions about the success of the individuals involved: eighteen athletes were able to visually and physically, and two non-disabled athletes, in terms of judo , of five football, swimming and athletics. Thus, a type of qualitative research case study describing their technique for data collection using the semi-structured in its successful implementation of 100% of the sample in six Brazilian states, namely: Paraná, Santa Catarina, Recife, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. Using the Content Analysis as a way of analyzing the texts seen through the clippings of interviews in the categories: I. The trajectory of the athletes in the school segment, II. The participation of athletes in the classes of Physical Education School, III. The involvement with the sport adapted, IV. The gaze of the media, V. The family support, VI. The importance of financial support and VII. Possible contributions to the sport adapted. Thus, we conclude that the sport by people in terms of disability has gained its start, in most, within a context of (re) construction of life, or become stable after the changes in levels of disability resulting from organic and / or psychological. It is now appropriate that the sport gained importance in the lives of these people, with the achievement of security, the restoration of self-esteem, the expansion of opportunities and perceptions of potential, whether in the social field in organic benefits in family benefits, in social benefits and financial benefits. / Doutorado / Atividade Fisica, Adaptação e Saude / Mestre em Educação Física