Wo und wie schnell nehmen Wurzeln Wasser auf? Obwohl diese Frage in Pflanzen- und  Bodenwissenschaften von großer Bedeutung ist, gibt es nur wenige experimentelle Daten darüber, an welcher Stelle der Wurzeln eine transpirierende Pflanze das Wasser aus dem Boden erhält. Die Antwort auf diese Frage erfordert direkte und in-situ Messungen des lokalen Wasserflusses in die Wurzel hinein. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, eine neue Methode zu entwickeln und anzuwenden, um den lokalen Wasserfluss in unterschiedliche Segmente der Pflanzenwurzeln zu quantifizieren. Dabei wurde Neutronenradiographie eingesetzt um den Transport von deuteriertem Wasser (D2O) in die Wurzel von Lupinen zu untersuchen. Die Lupinen wuchsen in Aluminium Containern, die mit sandigem Boden gefüllt waren. Der sandige Boden wurde mit Hilfe von 1cm-dicken Schichten groben Sandes in verschiedene Bereiche eingeteilt. Diese Schichten reduzierten die Diffusion von D2O zwischen den verschiedenen Bereichen.  D2O wurde in ausgewählte Bereiche tagsüber (transpiriende Pflanzen) und nachts (nicht transpiriernde Pflanze) injiziert. Transport von D2O in die Wurzeln hinein wurde durch Neutronenradiographie mit einer räumlichen Auflösung von 100 µm in Intervallen von 10 Sekunden aufgezeichnet. Die Messungen zeigten: i) Transport von D2O in die Wurzel hinein war tagsüber schneller als nachst; ii) D2O wurde tagsüber schnell entlang der Wurzel in Richtung Spross transportiert, während dieser axiale Fluss nachts vernachlässigbar war. Die Unterschiede zwischen Tag- und Nachtmessungen wurden durch konvektiven Transport von D2O in den Wurzeln erklärt. Um den effektiven Wasserfluss in die Wurzeln hinein zu quantifizieren, wurde ein einfaches Konvektions-Diffusions Modell entwickelt, wobei die Zunahme der D2O Konzentration in Wurzeln vom konvektiven Transport abhängt und von the Diffusion des D2O in die Wurzeln. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Wasseraufnahme nicht gleichmäßig entlang der Wurzel stattfindet. Die Wasseraufnahme war in den oberen Bodenschichten höher als in den tieferen. Entlang einzelner Wurzeln war der radiale Fluss in nahen Teilen der Wurzel höher als in den weiter entfernten Teilen der Wurzel. In Lupinen fand die Wasseraufnahme im Wesentlichen in den lateralen Wurzeln statt. Die Funktion der Pfahlwurzel war es, das Wasser der lateralen Wurzeln zu sammeln und zum Spross zu transportieren. Diese Funktion wird durch eine geringe radiale und eine hohe axiale Leitfähigkeit sichergestellt.  Wir haben diese Technik auch angewandt um den Einfluss der Rhizosphäre auf die Wasseraufnahme zu untersuchen. Wie vor Kurzem auch in der Literatur berichtet wurde, wurde auch in dieser Arbeit beobachtet, dass der Boden in der unmittelbaren Nähe der Wurzeln, der sogenannten Rhizosphäre, hydrophob wird, wenn der Boden trocken wird. Zum ersten Mal konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch die Hydrophobizität der Rhizosphäre die Wasseraufnahme nach Trocknung und folgender Bewässerung reduziert wird. Es wurde die Schlussfolgerung gezogen, dass nach Trocknung die Rhizosphäre einen entscheidenden Wiederstand für den Wasserfluss zur Wurzel darstellt. Das beeinflusst vermutlich auch die Ausdehnung des Bereiches der Wurzeln, in dem Wasser aufgenommen wird. Die Bedeutung dieser Arbeit ist die Entwicklung einer neuen Methode, um Wasseraufnahme durch Wurzeln lebender Pflanzen lokal zu quantifizieren. Diese Methode macht es möglich quantitativ zu messen, wo und wie schnell Wurzeln Wasser im Boden aufnehmen. Diese Technik wird es erleichtern, die Funktionsweise der Wurzeln verschiedener Pflanzen zu verstehen und den Einfluss von Wurzelwachstum und wechselnder äußerer Bedingungen, wie Wassergehalt, Transpiration und Verfügbarkeit von Nährstoffen und vieler weiterer Faktoren zu untersuchen.  Die Antwort auf diese Fragen könnten einen weiten Bereich für landwirtschaftliche Anwendungen eröffnen, die darauf abzielen, Bewässerungsmethoden zu verbessern.

Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento e caracterização de uma máquina elétrica para aplicação em sistemas de tração automotiva. Compreende o estudo e a análise do perfil de carga e das grandezas eletromagnéticas e eletromecânicas através da construção de modelos analíticos, numéricos e experimentais. Através destes, são propostos critérios para o dimensionamento geométrico e para a escolha dos materiais. A topologia da máquina elétrica possui fluxo axial no entreferro, duplo rotor com ímãs permanentes setoriais, núcleo estator toroidal sem ranhuras e enrolamentos setoriais. Os modelos analíticos tridimensionais para a geometria e o volume dos enrolamentos são uma contribuição relevante em termos científicos. Experimentalmente, a máquina é acionada como gerador síncrono, com um rendimento interno de até 91,75%. Como gerador em regime de frenagem regenerativa obteve-se um rendimento interno de 78,61% no barramento CC. Ao final, utilizando o modelo automotivo de perdas, é feita uma análise em regime permanente do sistema acoplado, visando à caracterização da eficiência energética global do sistema. Os resultados obtidos permitem uma avaliação adequada da máquina no modo de operação proposto. / Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento e caracterização de uma máquina elétrica para aplicação em sistemas de tração automotiva. Compreende o estudo e a análise do perfil de carga e das grandezas eletromagnéticas e eletromecânicas através da construção de modelos analíticos, numéricos e experimentais. Através destes, são propostos critérios para o dimensionamento geométrico e para a escolha dos materiais. A topologia da máquina elétrica possui fluxo axial no entreferro, duplo rotor com ímãs permanentes setoriais, núcleo estator toroidal sem ranhuras e enrolamentos setoriais. Os modelos analíticos tridimensionais para a geometria e o volume dos enrolamentos são uma contribuição relevante em termos científicos. Experimentalmente, a máquina é acionada como gerador síncrono, com um rendimento interno de até 91,75%. Como gerador em regime de frenagem regenerativa obteve-se um rendimento interno de 78,61% no barramento CC. Ao final, utilizando o modelo automotivo de perdas, é feita uma análise em regime permanente do sistema acoplado, visando à caracterização da eficiência energética global do sistema. Os resultados obtidos permitem uma avaliação adequada da máquina no modo de operação proposto.

Le travail présenté dans ce mémoire traite de la problématique du dimensionnement de structures innovantes de génératrices, à savoir les machines à flux axial ou encore discoïdes, destinées aux éoliennes de grande puissance allant jusqu'à deux dizaines de mégawatts. Les machines synchrones à aimants permanents à flux axial étant intrinsèquement tridimensionnelles, l'optimisation de leur dimensionnement nécessite un modèle dimensionnant tridimensionnel et multiphysique qui peut être, de par sa nature 3D, très consommateur en mémoire et en temps de calcul. On se propose donc, dans ce mémoire, de développer une approche de modélisation par constantes localisées offrant un très bon rapport entre vitesse de calcul et précision afin d'accélérer de façon significative les premières phases de la procédure de dimensionnement. L'approche par constantes localisées peut par ailleurs s'appliquer de manière similaire aux principales physiques concernées (magnétique, thermique et mécanique). Plus particulièrement pour la partie magnétique, l'approche par constantes localisées est mise en œuvre par le biais de réseaux réluctants magnétiques génériques. Le principe de la méthode développée repose sur le découpage de la géométrie de la machine en volumes élémentaires finis parallélépipédiques à l'instar de qui est fait avec la méthode des éléments finis. En effet, chaque volume élémentaire étant modélisé par un réseau réluctant local, le découpage de la géométrie conduit à la génération automatique du système algébrique magnétique de la structure et dont la solution fournit la distribution locale du potentiel scalaire magnétique aux nœuds des volumes élémentaires. Cette approche de modélisation a été implémentée dans un code de calcul interne au GREAH. La modélisation de la génératrice à flux axial par réseaux réluctants a été validée par des simulations 2D et 3D par éléments finis. Le code de calcul développé intègrera les travaux en cours sur les modèles thermique et mécanique au GREAH afin d'aboutir à un code de calcul multi-physique par constantes localisées / The aim of this PhD thesis is to propose a design approach of the axial flux permanent magnet synchronous generator for multi megawatts wind converter application. The axial flux permanent magnet synchronous machine being intrinsically three dimensional, a 3D multiphysics sizing model is needed in order to conduct an efficient optimal design of this type of machines. Unfortunately, 3D multiphysic models are generally issued from finite element method. So, they are very heavy to be handled in a reduced time from an engineer point of view and especially at the first stages of the design procedure. In order to address the faster axial flux machine design, this PhD thesis develops a lumped parameters approach modelling offering a good computation time to precision ratio and thus helping to reduce considerably the spent time in the first stages design procedure. The lumped parameters modelling approach is also well suited for the modelling of the three main physics to be considered in an electrical generator (magnetic model, thermal model and mechanical model). For the magnetic model, the lumped parameters approach consists, in this thesis, in the development of a generic magnetic reluctance network linked to the machine geometry. In fact, the latter is divided into parallelepipedic elementary volumes, each of them is modelled by a local reluctance network. The reluctance network of the hole machine geometry results then automatically in an algebraic magnetic system, the solution of which provides the distribution of the scalar magnetic potential at the elementary volume nodes. The described lumped parameters modelling was implemented in a computational code developed at the GREAH Lab. The effectiveness of the reluctance network axial flux machine modelling was validated by 2D and 3D finite element simulations. The lumped parameters computational code will regroup the ongoing developments of thermal and mechanical models at the GREAH Lab in order to reach the completion of a mutliphysics lumped parameters computational code.

Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento e caracterização de uma máquina elétrica para aplicação em sistemas de tração automotiva. Compreende o estudo e a análise do perfil de carga e das grandezas eletromagnéticas e eletromecânicas através da construção de modelos analíticos, numéricos e experimentais. Através destes, são propostos critérios para o dimensionamento geométrico e para a escolha dos materiais. A topologia da máquina elétrica possui fluxo axial no entreferro, duplo rotor com ímãs permanentes setoriais, núcleo estator toroidal sem ranhuras e enrolamentos setoriais. Os modelos analíticos tridimensionais para a geometria e o volume dos enrolamentos são uma contribuição relevante em termos científicos. Experimentalmente, a máquina é acionada como gerador síncrono, com um rendimento interno de até 91,75%. Como gerador em regime de frenagem regenerativa obteve-se um rendimento interno de 78,61% no barramento CC. Ao final, utilizando o modelo automotivo de perdas, é feita uma análise em regime permanente do sistema acoplado, visando à caracterização da eficiência energética global do sistema. Os resultados obtidos permitem uma avaliação adequada da máquina no modo de operação proposto. / Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento e caracterização de uma máquina elétrica para aplicação em sistemas de tração automotiva. Compreende o estudo e a análise do perfil de carga e das grandezas eletromagnéticas e eletromecânicas através da construção de modelos analíticos, numéricos e experimentais. Através destes, são propostos critérios para o dimensionamento geométrico e para a escolha dos materiais. A topologia da máquina elétrica possui fluxo axial no entreferro, duplo rotor com ímãs permanentes setoriais, núcleo estator toroidal sem ranhuras e enrolamentos setoriais. Os modelos analíticos tridimensionais para a geometria e o volume dos enrolamentos são uma contribuição relevante em termos científicos. Experimentalmente, a máquina é acionada como gerador síncrono, com um rendimento interno de até 91,75%. Como gerador em regime de frenagem regenerativa obteve-se um rendimento interno de 78,61% no barramento CC. Ao final, utilizando o modelo automotivo de perdas, é feita uma análise em regime permanente do sistema acoplado, visando à caracterização da eficiência energética global do sistema. Os resultados obtidos permitem uma avaliação adequada da máquina no modo de operação proposto.

Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento e caracterização de uma máquina elétrica para aplicação em sistemas de tração automotiva. Compreende o estudo e a análise do perfil de carga e das grandezas eletromagnéticas e eletromecânicas através da construção de modelos analíticos, numéricos e experimentais. Através destes, são propostos critérios para o dimensionamento geométrico e para a escolha dos materiais. A topologia da máquina elétrica possui fluxo axial no entreferro, duplo rotor com ímãs permanentes setoriais, núcleo estator toroidal sem ranhuras e enrolamentos setoriais. Os modelos analíticos tridimensionais para a geometria e o volume dos enrolamentos são uma contribuição relevante em termos científicos. Experimentalmente, a máquina é acionada como gerador síncrono, com um rendimento interno de até 91,75%. Como gerador em regime de frenagem regenerativa obteve-se um rendimento interno de 78,61% no barramento CC. Ao final, utilizando o modelo automotivo de perdas, é feita uma análise em regime permanente do sistema acoplado, visando à caracterização da eficiência energética global do sistema. Os resultados obtidos permitem uma avaliação adequada da máquina no modo de operação proposto. / Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento e caracterização de uma máquina elétrica para aplicação em sistemas de tração automotiva. Compreende o estudo e a análise do perfil de carga e das grandezas eletromagnéticas e eletromecânicas através da construção de modelos analíticos, numéricos e experimentais. Através destes, são propostos critérios para o dimensionamento geométrico e para a escolha dos materiais. A topologia da máquina elétrica possui fluxo axial no entreferro, duplo rotor com ímãs permanentes setoriais, núcleo estator toroidal sem ranhuras e enrolamentos setoriais. Os modelos analíticos tridimensionais para a geometria e o volume dos enrolamentos são uma contribuição relevante em termos científicos. Experimentalmente, a máquina é acionada como gerador síncrono, com um rendimento interno de até 91,75%. Como gerador em regime de frenagem regenerativa obteve-se um rendimento interno de 78,61% no barramento CC. Ao final, utilizando o modelo automotivo de perdas, é feita uma análise em regime permanente do sistema acoplado, visando à caracterização da eficiência energética global do sistema. Os resultados obtidos permitem uma avaliação adequada da máquina no modo de operação proposto.

Cette thèse porte sur l'étude de machines polyentrefers et leurs limitations, dans le contexte d'avion plus électrique et du projet de déplacement des avions au sol. Ces moteurs, basés sur l'utilisation de plusieurs éléments mobiles et fixes mis en parallèle, permettent d'obtenir de hautes performances. Une étude sur les tolérances des dimensions des éléments actifs montre que les performances peuvent être dégradées si des précautions lors de la réalisation ne sont pas prises et si les entrefers utilisés ne sont pas faibles. Ce manuscrit présente un système totalement innovant permettant d'utiliser un entrefer réduit à son minimum sans que les performances ne soient dégradées par de la friction. Ce système est appelé système de compensation des efforts de plaquage. Afin de développer un moteur tournant à entraînement direct dans le cadre du taxiage des avions, deux topologies différentes de machines discoïdes sont étudiées et dimensionnées. Les résultats favorisent l'utilisation d'une des deux structures, à entrefer réduit, pour réaliser un maximum de couple dans le volume donné. Afin de prouver la faisabilité du système innovant sur un moteur discoïde, la réalisation d'un prototype laboratoire complet est proposée. Des simulations thermiques et du comportement du système innovant permettront de valider ces études. / This thesis focuses on the study of multi-air gap machines and their limitations, in the framework of more electric aircraft and the project of moving aircrafts on the ground without the main engines. These motors, based on the use of mobile and fixed parts disposed in parallel, induce high performance. A study concerning the tolerance for the dimensions of active parts shows that performance can decrease if precautions are not taken during manufacturing and if the air gaps are not small. This manuscript presents a totally innovative system that permits the use of an air gap reduced to its minimum without reducing performance by friction. This system is called system of attraction control. In order to develop a direct-drive motor for aircraft taxiing, two different topologies of disc-type machines are studied and sized. The obtained results encourage the use of one of the two structures with reduced air gap to realize maximum torque in the fixed volume. To prove the feasibility of the innovative system on a disc-type motor, the conception of an entire laboratory prototype is proposed. Thermal modelling and simulations on the innovative system behaviour will validate the presented work.

Axial flux permanent magnet (AFPM) machines have recently attracted significant attention due to several reasons, such as their specific form factor, potentially higher torque density and lower losses, feasibility of increasing the number of poles, and facilitating innovative machine structures for emerging applications. One such machine design, which has promising, high efficiency particularly at higher speeds, is of the coreless AFPM type and has been studied in the dissertation together with more conventional AFPM topologies that employ a ferromagnetic core. A challenge in designing coreless AFPM machines is estimating the eddy current losses. This work proposes a new hybrid analytical and numerical finite element (FE) based method for calculating ac eddy current losses in windings and demonstrates its applicability for axial flux electric machines. The method takes into account 3D field effects in order to achieve accurate results and yet greatly reduce computational efforts. It is also shown that hybrid methods based on 2D FE models, which require semi-empirical correction factors, may over-estimate the eddy current losses. The new 3D FE-based method is advantageous as it employs minimum simplifications and considers the end turns in the eddy current path, the magnetic flux density variation along the effective length of coils, and the field fringing and leakage, which ultimately increases the accuracy of simulations. After exemplifying the practice and benefits of employing a combined design of experiments and response surface methodology for the comparative design of coreless and conventional AFPM machines with cores, an innovative approach is proposed for integrated design, prototyping, and testing efforts. It is shown that extensive sensitivity analysis can be utilized to systematically study the manufacturing tolerances and identify whether the causes for out of specification performance are detectable. The electromagnetic flux path in AFPM machines is substantially 3D and cannot be satisfactorily analyzed through simplified 2D simulations, requiring laborious 3D models for performance prediction. The use of computationally expensive 3D models becomes even more challenging for optimal design studies, in which case, thousands of candidate design evaluations are required, making the conventional approaches impractical. In this dissertation a new two-level surrogate assisted differential evolution multi-objective optimization algorithm (SAMODE) is developed in order to optimally and accurately design the electric machine with a minimum number of expensive 3D design evaluations. The developed surrogate assisted optimization algorithm is used to comparatively and systematically design several AFPM machines. The studies include exploring the effects of pole count on the machine performance and cost limits, and the systematic comparison of optimally designed single-sided and double-sided AFPM machines. For the case studies, the new optimization algorithm reduced the required number of FEA design evaluations from thousands to less than two hundred. The new methods, developed and presented in the dissertation, maybe directly applicable or extended to a wide class of electrical machines and in particular to those of the PM-excited synchronous type. The benefits of the new eddy current loss calculation and of the optimization method are mostly relevant and significant for electrical machines with a rather complicated magnetic flux path, such is the case of axial flux and of transvers flux topologies, which are a main subject of current research in the field worldwide.

This thesis is a study on an unconventional slow speed direct drive permanent magnet (PM) generator. Unlike a standard permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) which has the copper coils wound around iron teeth, the work in this thesis will present a generator where the copper coils are directly mounted on the stator which eliminates the slots and teeth in the generator. By having a slotless design it is possible to eliminate cogging torque, iron losses in teeth and achieve a lightweight design. These characteristics can prove useful when developing generators for an application such as wind turbines, or more specifically vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) in remote areas where weight and serviceability is of concern. This thesis consists of two main parts where the main focus was on the design and simulation of slotless generators. The second part of the thesis was to investigate an available slotless axial flux machine. For the simulations, three different models were created in 2D using CAD software. Two of the models were double-rotor slotless generators and one was a single rotor variant. The electromagnetic properties of these models were analysed using FEMM and COMSOL. The results showed that the double rotor variant with the smaller magnets were more favourable considering the price of magnets and no iron core losses. The experimental results of the axial flux machine gave insight into the construction of commercially available axial slotless generators which could be used to further analyse these types of machines.

Cette thèse s’intéresse à l’analyse de structures de machines électriques non conventionnelles destinées à la production d’électricité par des groupes électrogènes. Les topologies recherchées doivent utiliser moins de matières actives et/ou simplifier la procédure de fabrication par rapport aux machines actuelles.Une des structures est dédiée au système d’excitation de la machine. Elle possède un stator à griffes avec un bobinage toroïdal. Son dimensionnement est réalisé à l’aide d’un modèle de calcul par éléments finis en 3D, qui a été validé expérimentalement. Cette structure permet d’obtenir une réduction significative de la quantité de cuivre dans le bobinage.Les deux autres structures traitées concernent l’alternateur principal. Une machine synchro-réluctante à barrières deflux et à rotor bobiné a été proposée. L’objectif est d’augmenter la densité de couple grâce au couple de saillance. Elle est dimensionnée et comparée avec la structure conventionnelle. Ce cas met en évidence les limitations des structures proches de la structure actuelle.La dernière structure est une nouvelle topologie de machine électrique. Elle combine les caractéristiques des machines à flux axial et des machines à griffes, permettant de simplifier le système d’excitation. Une approche de modélisation originale a été développée pour l’analyse de cette topologie 3D en vue de son dimensionnement par optimisation. Le système d’excitation a un rôle important dans les performances de cette machine.Cette thèse constate aussi que l’évolution future des matériaux magnétiques pourrait tirer meilleur profit des structures non-conventionnelles avec des trajets de flux tridimensionnels. / The PhD project aims to analyse nonconventional structures of electric machines for electric power generation with diesel gensets. The researched topologies should use less active materials and/or simplify the manufacturing process compared to today’s machines.One of the structures is intended for the excitation system of the electric machine. It is composed of a claw-pole stator and a toroidal winding. It is designed using a 3D Finite Element model, previously validated by a prototype. This structure allows a significant reduction of the quantity of copper of the field winding.The other two structures under study are proposed for the main generator. A synchronous-reluctance machine with flux-barriers and a field winding in the rotor is analysed. The objective is to increase the torque density by increasing the reluctance torque. The designed machine is compared to the conventional structure. This case shows the limitations of structures similar to the current structure.The last structure is a new topology of electric machine. It combines the characteristics of claw-pole machines andaxial-flux machines. An original modelling approach is developed to analyse this 3D structure for its design based on an optimization algorithm. The study shows that the excitation system has a key role in its performances.This work also notes that the future evolution of magnetic materials should benefit the use of non-conventional structures with 3D flux paths.

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