Universiẗat, Diss., 2001--München.

Despite their ubiquitous use, Pt(II) anti-cancer drugs still suffer from many issues such as off-drug target effects, renal and nephrotoxicity as well as acquired and intrinsic drug resistance. To obtain a better understanding of how to mitigate these deleterious effects can be mitigated we first must know all the targets of these drugs. Highlighted in this dissertation is previous work performed by groups exploring the localization of Pt in cells using fluorescence microscopy. While Pt drugs such as cisplatin contain no native fluorescence, a great deal of work has been done to covalently modify complexes with fluorescent tags. From studies using this technique, it been reported that Pt can target a number of compartments within the cell ranging from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. With each different derivative being observed in varied cell lines it becomes difficult to deconvolute a universal pattern to where Pt localizes, furthermore, the connected fluorophore could also bias Pt localization. To add general functionality and eliminate the bias of a pre-tethered fluorophore our lab has developed a number of different azide and alkyne-modified complexes that append a “reactive handle” to Pt compounds. This modification allows for use of the bioorthogonal azide-alkyne click reaction we are able to observe Pt localization after treatment. The focus of this work includes method development to conjugate a fluorophore to our Pt complexes in vitro and in cell cultures. We examined a number of different cell lines and observed frequent localization in the nucleolus of the cell. Also in this work is the development of methods to append multiple fluorophores to each Pt site to increase our ability to visualize these complexes in cells. Finally, we have also constructed a new Pt-azide that exhibits slower exchange kinetics due to a chelating exchangeable group. The use of this new complex will enable studies to determine whether changing the leaving group results in differential localization of Pt drugs in cells.

Katalysatorfreie [3+2]-Cycloadditionen von Aziden mit Alkinen werden in der bioorthogonalen Chemie häufig verwendet und haben großes Potential zur milden Synthese von Biokonjugaten. Während solche Reaktionen in der Ligandenperipherie von Metallkomplexen häufiger angewendet werden ist, sind solche Reaktionen direkt in der inneren Koordinationssphäre von Metallzentren bisher nur wenig erforscht. Die neue Beispiele dafür sind die Synthese und Untersuchungen der Kinetik und Reaktivität einer Reihe von Rhodium(III)azid-Halbsandwichkomplexen der allgemeinen Formel [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyR,R)]+ oder von isoelektronische und isostrukturelle Molybdän(II)azid- und Wolfram(II)azid-Komplexe mit verschiedenen elektronenarme Alkine. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit waren daher iClick-Reaktionen (engl. inorganic click, „iClick“) von Palladium(II)azid- und Platin(II)azid-Komplexen der allgemeinen Formel [M(N3)(L)]+ und [M(N3)(L)] mit elektronenarmen Alkinen Dimethylacetylendicarboxylat (DMAD) und 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester. Als Liganden kamen die N,N,N-Chelatoren 1,3-Bis(arylimino)isoindolin (HL1-4) die sich nur im Bezug auf die Position der Methylgruppen in den Pyridinringen unterscheiden, 6',6"-Dimethyl-2',2:6,2"-terpyridin (L5) und 2,6-Bis(3-pyridazinyl)pyridin (L6) zum Einsatz. Die Reaktionen von L1-L4 mit [MCl2(cod)] (M = Pd, Pt) liefert neutrale Komplexe [MCl(L1-3)] und für L5 einfach geladene [MCl(L5)]+. Das koordinierte Chlorid wurde dann mit Natriumazid substituiert. Im abschließenden Teil der Arbeit wurde die zwei Alkinen in iClick-Reaktion verwendet um Palladium(II)- und Platin-Triazolat-Komplexe zu synthetisieren. Für die resultierenden Triazolat-Komplexe wurde eine N2-koordinierten des Triazolat-Liganden durch Röntgenstrukturanalyse für baii-Triazolat-Komplexe bestätigt. Besonderes Merkmal dieser Verbindungen ist, dass der Triazolat-Ligand aus Platzmangel senkrecht zum 1,3-Bis(arylimino)isoindolin-Ligand steht. In verwandten Terpyridin-Komplexen sind der mono- und tridentate Ligand dagegen coplanar. Mit 1,3-Bis(6-methyl-2-pyridylimino)isoindolin als Ligand konnten man keine Metall-Komplexe hergestellt werden, da die zusätzlichen Methylgruppem in 6',6"-Positionen aus sterische Gründen eine Reaktion mit [MCl2(cod)] verhindern. Auch der in drei Stufen synthetisierte Ligand 6',6"-Dimethyl-2',2:6,2"-terpyridin der im Vergleich zu Terpyridin zwei zusätzliche Methylgruppen in 6',6"-Position besitzen reagiert nur mit [PdCl2(cod)] nicht aber mit [PtCl2(cod)], da der Ionenradius von Pt(II) größer als der von Pd(II) ist. Die hergestellte Chlorid-, Azid- und Triazolat-Komplexe mit L5 als N,N,N-Chelator waren nur in DMSO Löslich. Darin zersetzt es sich jedoch teilweise wieder in den freien Liganden. Die zusätzlichen Methylgruppem in 6',6"-Positionen verhindern aus sterische Gründen die Chlorid-, Azid- und Triazolat-Komplexe stabil zu bleiben. Ligand L6 konnte nur in sehr niedrige Ausbeute isoliert werden, da in der letzten Stufe bzw. bei Stille-Kupplung zwischen 2,6-Bis(trimethylstannyl)pyridin und 3-Iodopyridazin die Homokupplungsprodukte von 3-Iodopyridazin entsteht, sodass die nicht getrennt werden konnten. Aufgrund der niedrigen Ausbeute wurden dann mit L6 keine Metall-Komplexe hergestellt. Die Kinetik der iClick-Reaktion ist ein entscheidender Faktor, wenn diese für die Markierung von Bio(makro)molekülen eingesetzt werden soll, da die Markierungsreaktion schneller als der interessierende biologische Prozess ablaufen muss. Daher wurden mit IR- und UV/Vis-Spektroskopie die Geschwindigkeitskonstanten pseudoerster Ordnung für die iClick-Reaktion der verschiedenen baii-Palladium(II)azid- und baii-Platin(II)azid-Komplexe mit Dimethylacetylendicarboxylat (DMAD) und 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester bestimmt. Hier sollte insbesondere der Einfluss der zusätzlichen Methylgruppen in 4',4"- bzw. 5',5"-Positionen am 1,3-Bis(arylimino)isoindolin-Liganden sowie die Variation des Metallzentrums und Alkins auf die Geschwindigkeit der iClick-Reaktionen untersucht werden. Mit IR-Spektroskopie wurden Geschwindigkeitskonstanten um (2.8-4.9)⋅10-4 s-1 an Alkinen erhalten. Die Einführung elektronenschiebender Methylgruppen in 4',4"- bzw. 5',5"-Positionen am 1,3-Bis(arylimino)isoindolin-Liganden führt zu einer Erhöhung der Geschwindigkeitskonstant einem Faktor von 1.3 bzw. 1.2 gegenüber 1,3-Bis(2-pyridylimino)isoindolin. Die iClick-Reaktion mit Platin als Metall ist 1.3-mal schneller als mit Palladium. Elektronenarme Alkine wie 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester führen im Vergleich zu Dimethylacetylendicarboxylat (DMAD) zu einer 1.8-fachen Erhöhung der Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit. Mit UV/Vis-Spektroskopie wurden niedrigere Geschwindigkeitskonstanten um 8.9·10-6 - 3.3·10-5 s-1 nur für die iClick-Reaktion der 1,3-Bis(arylimino)isoindolinplatin(II)azid-Komplexe mit Dimethylacetylendicarboxylat (DMAD) und 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester bestimmt, weil die Spektralen Unterschiede zwischen Azid-Vorstufe und Triazolat-Produkt mit Palladium als Metallzentren zu gering sind. Auch hier konnte die Erhöhung der Geschwindigkeitskonstanten durch Verwendung elektronenärmerer Alkine bestätigt werden. Hier sollte die iClick-Reaktion in Zukunft für größere Auswahlmöglichkeiten an Chelatoren optimiert und außerdem die Geschwindigkeitskonstanten der Bildung von iClick-Produkten mit anderen Methoden untersucht werden, bevor biologische Tests durchgeführt werden. / Catalyst-free [3+2] cycloadditions of azides with alkynes are widely used in bioorthogonal chemistry and have great potential for the mild synthesis of bioconjugates. While such reactions are commonly applied in the ligand periphery of metal complexes, little has been explored about then taking place directly in the inner coordination sphere of metal centers. Recent examples include the synthesis and study of the kinetics and reactivity of a series of rhodium(III) azide half-sandwich complexes of the general formula [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyR, R)]+ oder the investigation and comparison kinetics of both isoelectronic and isostructural molybdenum(II) and tungsten(II) azide complexes with different alkynes.. The aim of the present work was the exploration of inorganic click ("iClick") reactions of neutral and monocationic palladium(II) and platinum(II) azide complexes of the general formula [M(N3)(L)] and [M(N3)(L)]+ with electron-poor alkynes dimethylacetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) and ethyl 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoate. As ligands, the N, N, N-chelators 1,3-bis(arylimino)isoindoline (HL1-4) which differ only in the position of the methyl groups on the outer pyridine rings, 6',6"-dimethyl-2',2:6,2"-terpyridine (L5) and 2,6-bis(3-pyridazinyl)pyridine (L6) were used. The reaction of L1-L4 with [MCl2(cod)] (M= Pd, Pt) gave the neutral complexes [MCl(L1-3)] and singly charged [MCl(L5)]+ for L5. The coordinated chloride was then replaced by reaction with sodium azide. In the final part of the work, the two alkynes were used in the iClick reaction to synthesize palladium(II) and platinum(II) triazolate complexes. N2-coordination of the triazolate was confirmed by X-ray crystallography for baii-palladium(II) and baii-platinum(II) triazolate complexes. A special feature of these compounds is the congest space between the methyl groups leading to the triazolate ligand in a perpendicular arrangement relative to the 1,3-bis(arylimino)isoindoline mean plane ligand. In contraction related terpyridine complexes, the mono dentate triazolate and tridentate terpyridin ligands are coplanar. Metal complexes with the sterically demanding 1,3-bis(6-methyl-2-pyridylimino)isoindoline were not accessible, since the additional methyl groups in 6',6"-positions prevent a reaction with [MCl2(cod)]. Likewise 6',6"-Dimethyl-2',2:6,2"-terpyridine, which has two additional methyl groups in the 6',6"-position of terpyridine reacts only with [PdCl2(cod)] but not with [PtCl2(cod)], since the ionic radius of Pt(II) is largest than that of Pd(II). The chloride, azide, and triazolate complexes of L5 were only soluble in DMSO. However in this solution, they partially decompose back to the free ligand. This is due to the sterically demanding methyl grupps in 6',6"-positions which prevent formation for stable metal complexes. Ligand L6 could only be isolated in very low yield, as the last stage of the synthesis, the stille coupling between 2,6-bis(trimethylstannyl)pyridine and 3-iodopyridazine also lend homo coupling products which could not be separated. Due to the low yield, no metal complexes could be prepared with L6. The kinetics of the iClick reaction is a critical factor when used to label bio(macro)molecules since the labeling reaction must proceed faster than the biological process of interest. Therefore, IR and UV/Vis spectroscopy were used to determine the pseudo-first-order rate constants of the iClick reaction of the various 1,3-bis(arylimino)isoindoline palladium(II) and platinum(II) azide complexes with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) and ethyl 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoate. In particular, the influence of the additional methyl groups in 4',4" and 5',5"-position on the 1,3-bis(arylimino)isoindoline ligand as well as variation of the metal center and alkyne on the rate of the iClick reactions was examined. With IR spectroscopy, rate constants of (2.8 - 4.9)⋅10-4 s-1 were obtained. The introduction of electron-donating methyl groups in 4',4" and 5',5"-positions, respectively, on the 1,3-bis(arylimino)isoindoline ligand lead to an increase of the rate constant by a factor of 1.3 or 1.2 compared to the 1,3-bis(2-pyridylimino)isoindoline parent compound. The iClick reaction with platinum as the central metal is 1.3-times faster than with palladium. Electron-poor alkynes such as ethyl 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoate lead to a 1.8-fold increase in the rate of the reaction compared to dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD). With UV/Vis spectroscopy, lower rate constants of 8.9⋅10-6 - 3.3⋅10-5 s-1 were determined for the iClick reaction of the 1,3-bis(arylimino)isoindolinplatin(II) azide complexes with dimethylacetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) and ethyl 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoate. The analogous palladium complexes could not be studied with this method as there was only a negligible difference in the absorption spectra of azide precursor and triazolate products. With this method an increase in the rate constants could also be observed of electron-poor alkynes. The iClick reaction should be further for greater choice of chelators optimized in the future and also the rate constants of the formation of iClick products be investigated with other methods before biological tests are carried out.

The tumour suppressor p53 is essential for genome stability and loss of its function can lead to human cancer. The functional roles of p53 are regulated by a variety of mechanisms, some of which are not well understood. However, the murine double minute 2 (MDM2) protein, a major negative regulator of p53, has been found to be overexpressed in many human cancer cell lines in which p53 was not mutated; thus establishing MDM2 as a target for cancer therapeutics. MDM2 is defined as both an oncoprotein and an E3-ubiquitin ligase; its interactions with p53 are controlled through multiple domains, providing different possible pathways to inhibit MDM2 and therefore reactivate p53 function. Previous work undertaken in the Ball laboratory has shown that the MDM2 RING domain plays a critical role in p53 ubiquitination; thus screening for modulation of its activity by small molecules could provide new leads for the inhibition of the E3 ligase activity of MDM2. The MDM2 RING domain was cloned, expressed and purified so that it could be studied using a series of in vitro experiments. The generation of a library of short (12-mer) peptides as potential inhibitors of the MDM2 RING domain was investigated using phage display against His-tagged RING protein to screen the peptide ligands. In order to study the specificity of these peptides towards MDM2 (res. 396-491 and 396-479) compared with MDM4 and BRCA1, the MDM4 RING domain (res. 395-490 and 395-478) and BRCA1 (res. 1-304) domain were expressed and purified for further characterisation. A small selection of peptides was isolated and their binding affinity and activity as MDM2 inhibitors evaluated by in vitro ELISA, affinity chromatography and ubiquitination assays. One peptide in particular, KCCYFETHMPRH, was found to bind to MDM2 and was able to inhibit MDM2-mediated ubiquitination of p53 in vitro. Preliminary optimisation of this peptide by alanine scan revealed a peptide with a 2-fold increased potency. Since peptides provide comparatively weak therapeutic leads due to a combination of poor cellular uptake and susceptibility to cleavage by proteases, cyclic peptidomimetics based upon this lead were developed using side-chain to side-chain cyclisation. These peptidomimetics were successfully generated by the synthesis and incorporation of novel N-propargylated glycine and N-azidoalkyl glycine building blocks into a peptide sequence by Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS). Following a Copper-catalysed Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition (CuAAC) on solid phase or in solution, these peptoid-peptide hybrids were isolated, purified and characterised.

Les travaux présentés explorent la diversité structurale des glycannes dans l’organisme modèle du Poisson Zèbre et analysent la régulation des sialoconjugués lors d’évènements physiopathologiques particuliers. La première partie de mes travaux vise à étendre nos connaissances structurales sur la distribution des glycannes à l’échelle cellulaire et tissulaire grâce à l’étude d’un modèle majeur de vertébré, le poisson zèbre. Ces travaux s’inscrivent dans une optique de recherche fondamentale pour établir la première carte de glycosylation (glycosphingolipides ; N- et O-glycannes) des organes du poisson zèbre adulte. A terme, ces résultats permettront de mieux appréhender les relations structures-fonctions des glycannes au niveau des organismes entiers. La seconde partie de mes travaux se focalise sur le suivi structural et métabolique de la sialylation. Une première stratégie est basée sur l’utilisation d’un mime-alcyné de l’acide sialique que nous pouvons coupler à un fluorophore-azidé par « click-chemistry » pour visualiser les sialoconjugués en microscopie. Ainsi, nous avons étudié le métabolisme de l’acide sialique des fibroblastes de patients atteints de Maladie Congénitale de la Glycosylation ou pour suivre la métabolisation de l’acide sialique après une infection par le parasite intracellulaire Toxoplasma gondii. Une seconde stratégie s’intéresse à la régulation de la sialylation par des analyses structurales lors d’une infection parasitaire par Trypanosoma cruzii ou lors de la surexpression d’une sialyltransferase dans la lignée cellulaire MCF-7. Ces études révèlent d’importantes variations dans l’expression des sialoglycoconjugués. / Our studies investigated the structural diversity of glycans in zebrafish model organism and analyzed the regulation of sialoconjuguates during specific pathophysiological events. First part of my work intends to expand our structural knowledge about the organisation of glycans at the cellular and tissue levels through the study of a major vertebrate model, the zebrafish. This study aims to establish the first map of glycosylation in zebrafish, including profiles of glycosphingolipids as well as N- and O-glycans of glycoproteins. These data reveal numerous novel structures, including oligofucosylated and oligosialylated glycosphingolipids, and inform us about the organization of glycans within each organ. These results will provide new insight into the structure-function relationships of glycans in whole organisms. Second part of my work focuses on the structural and metabolic monitoring of sialylation. One of the deployed strategies is based on the use of an alkyne analogue of sialic acid and that can specially bind to a fluorophore by click-chemistry for monitoring the sialoconjugates by fluorescence microscopy. This strategy has been implemented to study sialic acid metabolism of fibroblasts from patients with congenital disease of the glycosylation or to follow the sialic acid metabolism after infection with the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii. A second strategy based on structural analyzes focuses on the regulation of sialic acid during parasitic infection by Trypanosoma cruzii or during an overexpression of sialyltransferase in MCF-7 cell line. These studies reveal significant variations in the expression of sialoconjuguates.

O presente estudo procura dar continuidade a um dos ramos de pesquisa desenvolvidos na área de Analítica do Instituto de Química da USP, onde se procura estudar a química de complexos formados entre diferentes metais e o ânion azoteto, N-3. O cátion índio(III), à semelhança do que ocorre com o ferro (III), complexa com o ânion azoteto em meio aquoso. Este poder de complexação foi constatado em estudos polarográficos do sistema In N3+ / N-3 ora em desenvolvimento. A obtenção das constantes de estabilidade dos complexos formados entre o In3+ e o ligante azoteto, por via potenciométrica, baseia-se na alteração do pH do tampão formado por N-3 e o ácido fraco HN3, quando se adicionam íons In3+. O acompanhamento da variação da concentração hidrogeniônica foi f.eito com o auxílio do eletrodo de vidro combinado. A concentração de N-3 de equilíbrio variou de valores próximos de zero a 90 mM, para que se obtivessem dados na mais larga faixa de concentraç6es de ligante. Manteve-se a força iônica das soluções em 2,00OM (NaCI04) e trabalhou-se a 25,0οC. A análise dos dados experimentais e tratamento matemático dos mesmos, evidenciaram a formação de complexos mononucleares e os valores das constantes globais encontrados foram: β1 = (2,0 ± 0,1) x 103M-1 β2 = (7 ± 3) x 105M-2 β3 = (5 ± 1) x 107M-3 β4 = (7 ± 3) x 108M-4 / The present study is a branch of the main work concerned with the complex formation between several metal cations and azide anion in aqueous media. Indium (III) was selected, in analogy to iron (III), because forms complexes with azide in aqueous media. Polarographic studies in development showed the tendency of these complexation. To determine the stability constants of complexes was used potentiometric method using glass e1ectrode. The main advantage is based on pH modification of the buffer solution constituted by azide and hidrazoic acid (N-3;/HN3) when indium (III) cations are added in the buffer. The azide concentration was a1tered from near zero to 90 mM, the ionic strenght he1d at 2,000 M with sodium perchlorate and the temperature kept constant at 25,0°C. The evaluation of experimental data shawed mononuclear species and the global constants found were: β1 = (2,0 ± 0,1) x 103M-1 β2 = (7 ± 3) x 105M-2 β3 = (5 ± 1) x 107M-3 β4 = (7 ± 3) x 108M-4

A primeira parte deste trabalho trata do desenvolvimento de método analítico espectrofotométrico para o íon azoteto, N3-, baseado na formação da espécie CuN3+ que absorve em 375nm. Desenvoveu-se ainda método de separação do azoteto de um número considerável de possíveis interferentes. O método permite determinar de 3,57 a 23,10 µg/ml de azoteto. Na segunda parte estudou-se a viabilidade de estudo espectrofotométrico da formação de complexos sucessivos para o sistema cobre(II)/azoteto. Determinaram-se as absortividades molares dos quatro complexos, bem como suas constantes de formação, em força iônica 4,0M, confirmando e completando os dados obtidos anteriormente por Senise e Neves. O mesmo sistema, em condições de força iônica 2,0M, foi estudado em diversas temperaturas para obter dados de ΔH° de formação das quatro espécies (parte III). Estes dados, em combinação com outras da literatura, permitiram a obtenção dos valores de H°, S° e G° dos íons, bem como do sólido Cu(N3)2. / Part I deals with the development of an analytical spectrophotometric method for azide ion, N3-, based on the formation of CuN3+; species, which absorbs at 375 nm. A procedure has also been developed to separate azide from a potentially large number of interferents. The method is applied in the 3.57 to 23.10 µg/ml azide concetration range. In part II, the possibility to study the step-wise complex formation in the copper(II)/azide system has been shown by spectrophotometric method. The molar absortivity of four complexes has been determined as well as the corresponding formation constant, at ionic strength 4.0 M. These results confirm and oomplete previous data obtained by Senise and Neves. The same system at ionic strength 2.0 M was studied at several temperatures to obtain Δ H° of formation of the four species (part III). These data, combined with values from the literature, lead to H°, S° and G° of the ions, as well as to the complete thermodinamic description of the solid Cu(N3)2.

Medium-sized organic ring synthesis poses a seemingly insurmountable challenge, and because of this it is a field under immense investigation. Heterocyclic containing medium-sized rings are common structural motifs in nature, which has caused researchers to investigate their potential biological activity and properties as materials. This research focused on the grand challenge of medium-sized heterocyclic ring synthesis, providing the synthesis community with new tools to generate these highly evasive products, while elucidating energetic and geometric properties of one of Nature's least understood organic ring systems. Cobalt(II)-Amidoporphyrins, [Co(D2-Por)], are an emerging class of metalloradical catalysts (MRC) which can facilitate a wide range of atom and group transfer reactions. A strategy was employed using [Co(D2-Por)] to carry out an intramolecular C-H amination reaction using sulfamoyl azides as the radical nitrene source to aminate the highly reactive aldehydic C-H bond. This newfound reaction allowed for the generation of previously unobtainable medium-sized heterocycles, which surprisingly provided a racemic mixture of chiral medium-sized rings. A wide array of chiral amidoporphyrins including meso-heteroatom containing porphyrins were synthesized as well during the course of research to probe their potential as new chiral ligands for the emerging field of cobalt(II)-amidoporphyrin catalyzed MRC system. A practical synthetic scheme was discovered employing the highly selective Zn(II)-bromoporphyrin synthon to generate a new library of chiral amidoporphyrin ligands for the MRC system through well-established cross-coupling methodologies.

Die regioselektive Funktionalisierung von Bio(makro)molekülen erfordert Reaktionen, die mit einem biologischen System weder interagieren noch interferieren. Bestimmte funktionelle Gruppen, wie Azide oder Alkine, sind unter physiologischen Bedingungen inert, kommen nicht in der Natur vor, lassen sich selektiv miteinander verknüpfen und sind nicht-toxisch gegenüber Zellen und Organismen. Für die Einführung metallbasierter Funktionalitäten in solche Zielstrukturen stellen Click-Reaktionen daher einen schnellen Zugang dar, wobei Reaktionen, die ohne Zusatz von Katalysator und bei Raumtemperatur ablaufen von besonderem Interesse sind. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es daher die „iClick“-Reaktion von Ruthenium-Azid-Komplexen der allgemeinen Formel [Ru(N3)(aren)(N-N)]+ mit bidentaten Stickstoffliganden sowie Rhodium-Azid-Komplexen der allgemeinen Formel [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyR,R)]+ mit unterschiedlich substituierten 2,2‘-Bipyridin-Coliganden (R = OCH3, H, COOCH3) gegenüber elektronenarmen Alkinen zu untersuchen. Röntgenstrukturanalysen der resultierenden Triazolat-Komplexe sollten den Koordinationsmodus bestätigten, da die Produkte der Click-Reaktionen prinzipiell als zwei verschiedene Regioisomere auftreten können. Die [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyR,R)]CF3SO3-Komplexe mit 2,2‘-Bipyridin (bpy), dem elektronenziehenden Ligand 4,4‘-Bis(methoxycarbonyl)-2,2′-bipyridin (bpyCOOCH3,COOCH3) sowie dem elektronenschiebenden Ligand 4,4’-Dimethoxy-2,2‘-bipyridin (bpyOCH3,OCH3) wurden aus den entsprechenden Rhodium-Chlorido-Komplexen durch Fällung des Halogenids mit Silbertrifluormethansulfonat und anschließender Umsetzung mit Natriumazid hergestellt. In Lösung waren diese Verbindungen jedoch nur begrenzt stabil, wobei der Komplex mit bpyOCH3,OCH3 am wenigsten empfindlich war, während [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyCOOCH3,COOCH3)]CF3SO3 aufgrund der sehr schnellen Zersetzung nicht isoliert werden konnte. Die „iClick“-Reaktion der Rhodium-Azid-Komplexe mit 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester ergab dann aber die stabilen Triazolat-Komplexe [Rh(Cp*)(triazolatCF3,COOEt)(bpyR,R)]CF3SO3 in sehr guter Ausbeute. Die Ruthenium-Azid-Komplexe [Ru(N3)(N-N)(p­cym)]PF6 mit N-N = bpy, bpyCOOCH3,COOCH3, bpyOCH3,OCH3, Bipyrimidin (bpym) sowie Dipyrido[3,2­a:2',3'­c]phenazin (dppz) wurden ausgehend von den jeweiligen Ruthenium-Chlorido-Komplexen durch Fällung des Halogenid-Liganden mit Silbertrifluormethansulfonat und anschließender Umsetzung mit Natriumazid in guter bis moderater Ausbeute hergestellt. Um den Einfluss des Aren-Liganden zu untersuchen wurde außerdem der entsprechende Hexamethylbenzol-Komplex [Ru(N3)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 in moderater Ausbeute hergestellt. Alle [Ru(N3)(aren)(N-N)]X-Komplexe mit X = PF6- oder CF3SO3- wurden mittels 1H, 13C NMR- und IR-Spektroskopie, CHN-Analyse sowie ESI-Massenspektrometrie charakterisiert. Die „iClick“-Reaktion dieser Komplexe erfolgte mit 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester und teilweise auch mit Dimethylacetylendicaboxylat (DMAD) in sehr guter bis guter Ausbeute. Außerdem konnten für die Röntgenstrukturanalyse taugliche Einkristalle von [Ru(triazolatCF3,COOEt)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 und [Ru(triazolatCF3,COOEt)(bpyCOOCH3,COOCH3)(p­cym)]PF6 erhalten werden, die die N2-Koordination des Triazolat-Liganden an das Zentralatom bestätigten. Um diese als metallbasierte Marker einsetzen zu können, müssen die resultierenden Triazolat-Komplexe bei biologisch relevanten pH-Werten und gegenüber Ligandenaustausch, zum Beispiel mit den Aminosäureseitenketten von Proteinen, stabil sein. Durch HPLC-Untersuchungen an [Ru(triazolatCF3,COOEt)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 wurde gezeigt, dass dieser Komplex in wässriger Lösung über einen pH-Bereich von 1 bis 8 bei Raumtemperatur mindestens 24 h stabil ist. Außerdem konnte eine weitgehende Stabilität gegenüber Ligandenaustausch mit den Seitenketten der Aminosäuren L­Cystein, L-Histidin, L­Methionin und L-Glutaminsäure bei 37 °C über mindestens 72 h festgestellt werden. Insbesondere die Geschwindigkeit der „iClick“-Reaktion ist in einem biologischen Kontext von Bedeutung, da die Konjugationsreaktionen schneller ablaufen müssen als interessierende biologische Prozesse. Mittels HPLC und IR-Spektroskopie wurde für die „iClick“-Reaktion der Rutheniumazid-Komplexe [Ru(N3)(bpyR,R)(p-cym)]PF6 mit R = OCH3, H oder COOCH3 sowie [Ru(N3)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 mit einem Überschuss an 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester Geschwindigkeitskonstanten pseudoerster Ordnung im Bereich von 1 ­ 3*10-3 s-1 bestimmt. Außerdem war es mittels IR-Spektroskopie in Lösung möglich die Geschwindigkeits-konstante pseudoerster Ordnung für die „iClick“-Reaktion der Rhodiumazid-Verbindungen [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyR,R)]CF3SO3 mit R = OCH3, H oder COOCH3 und 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester zu 2 ­ 4*10-3 s-1 zu ermitteln. Insgesamt zeigte sich, dass Komplexe mit elektronenreichen Coliganden schneller mit 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester reagieren als solche mit elektronenärmeren Liganden. Auch war die Geschwindigkeitskonstante für die Reaktion der Rhodium-Komplexe höher als für die Rutheniumverbindungen. Die Geschwindigkeitskonstanten zweiter Ordnung wurden aus der 19F NMR-spektroskopischen Untersuchung der Reaktion von 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester und [Ru(N3)(bpyR,R) (p-cym)]PF6 mit R = OCH3, H oder COOCH3 sowie [Ru(N3)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 bei 20 °C bestimmt. Bei annähernd gleichem Verhältnis von Alkin und Rutheniumazid-Komplexen wurden Geschwindigkeitskonstanten im Bereich von 1 - 2*10-2 L mol-1 s-1 erhalten. Diese sind größer als die der Staudinger-Ligation, aber kleiner als die der spannungsinduzierten Azid-Alkin Cycloaddition. Prinzipiell sollte damit also eine biologische Anwendung möglich sein. Außerdem wurde die Aktivierungsenergie der Reaktion von [Ru(N3)(bpy)(p­cym)]PF6 mit 4,4,4-Trifluorobut-2-insäureethylester aus der Untersuchung der Temperaturabhängigkeit im Bereich von -20 °C bis +20 °C mit VT-NMR zu 46.1 kJ mol-1 bestimmt. In den 19F NMR-Spektren des Reaktionsgemisches zeigte sich bei -20 °C neben dem Signal des N2-koordinierten Triazolats außerdem ein weiteres, das dem N1-Isomer zuzuordnen ist, welches bei Erwärmen jedoch wieder verschwand. In einer DFT-Rechnung wurde die Geometrie von [Ru(N3)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 optimiert. Dabei zeigte sich, dass nur etwa 25 – 30% aller Trajektorien angreifender Alkinmolekülen einen Zugang zum Azid ermöglichen, sodass die Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit um etwa einen Faktor vier niedriger liegen sollte als für nicht oder nur wenig abgeschirmte Organoazid-Verbindungen. Die „iClick“-Reaktion der hier untersuchten Metall-Azid-Komplexe mit elektronenarmen Alkinen zeigt also bereits jetzt Reaktionsgeschwindigkeiten vergleichbar etablierter Biokonjugationsreaktionen. In Zukunft sollte daher das Potential anderer Metall-Azid-Bausteine untersucht und auch das Alkin variiert werden. / The regioselective functionalization of bio(macro)molecules requires reactions which do not interact or interfere with biological systems. Certain functional groups such as azides or alkynes are inert under physiological conditions, do not occur naturally, can selectively react with each other and are non-toxic to cells and organisms. To introduce metal-based functionalities in biological target structures, click reactions enable a fast access. In particular those which take place without catalyst and at room temperature are of special interest. Thus, the aim of the present thesis was to investigate the “iClick” reaction of ruthenium azide complexes [Ru(N3)(arene)(N-N)]+ with bidentate nitrogen ligands and also that of rhodium azide complexes [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyR,R)]+ with different 4,4’-substituted 2,2‘-bipyridin coligands with R = OCH3, H or COOCH3 towards electron-deficient alkynes. X-ray studies on ruthenium triazolate complexes were to establish the coordination mode, since the triazolate productes derived from click chemistry can result in two different regioisomers. The [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyR,R)]CF3SO3 complexes with 2,2-bipyridine (bpy), electron-withdrawing ligand 4,4‘-bis(methoxycarbonyl)-2,2′-bipyridine (bpyCOOCH3,COOCH3) and also electron-donating ligand 4,4’-dimethoxy-2,2‘-bipyridine (bpyOCH3,OCH3) were synthesised from the corresponding rhodium chloride complexes by abstraction of the halide using silver trifluoromethanesulfonate followed by introduction of the azide ligand with sodium azide. However, these complexes have only limited stability in solution. The compound with bipyOCH3,OCH3 is the most stable, while [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyCOOCH3,COOCH3)]CF3SO3 could not be isolated due to the fast decomposion. Still, the “iClick” reaction of rhodium azide complexes with 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoic acid ethyl ester allowed isolation of the triazolate complexes [Rh(Cp*)(triazolateCF3,COOEt)(bpyR,R)]CF3SO3 in very good yield. The corresponding ruthenium azide complexes [Ru(N3)(N-N)(p¬cym)]PF6 with N-N = bpy, bpyCOOCH3,COOCH3, bpyOCH3,OCH3, bipyrimidine (bpym) and dipyrido[3,2¬a:2',3'-c]phenazine (dppz) were also synthesised in a moderate to good yield from the corresponding ruthenium chloride complexes by halide abstraction using silver trifluoromethanesulfonate followed by introduction of azide ligand with sodium azide. To investigate the effect of the arene, the hexamethylbenzene complex [Ru(N3)(bipy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 was also synthesised in a moderate yield. All [Ru(N3)(arene)(N¬N)]X complexes with X = PF6- or CF3SO3- were characterised by 1H, 13C NMR and IR spectroscopy, CHN analysis and ESI mass spectrometry. The “iClick” reaction of these complexes with 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoic acid ethyl ester and in some cases with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DMAD) proceeded in good to excellent yield. Furthermore, single crystals suitable for X-ray structure analysis were obtained for the triazolate complexes [Ru(triazolateCF3,COOEt)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 and [Ru(triazolateCF3,COOEt)(bpyCOOCH3,COOCH3)(p¬cym)]PF6 and confirmed the N2 coordination of the triazolate to the metal center. To use these triazolate complexes as metal-based markers, they have to be stable at biologically relevant pH and towards ligand exchange, for example with amino acid side chains in proteins. Thus, HPLC studies on [Ru(triazolateCF3,COOEt)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 demonstrated the stability in a pH range of 1 to 8 for at least 24 h at room temperature. In addition, the stability towards ligand exchange with functional groups of amino acid side chains in L-cysteine, L-histidine, L-methionine and L-glutamic acid was studied over 72 h at 37 °C and essentially no ligand exchange was observed. The rate constant of the “iClick” reaction is important for its use in bioconjugation since the labeling reactions have to be faster than the biological processes of interests. Pseudo-first order rate constants were determined in the range of 1 ¬ 3×10-3 s-1 for the “iClick” reaction of [Ru(N3)(bpyR,R) (p¬cym)]PF6 with R = OCH3, H or COOCH3 and also [Ru(N3)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 with an excess of 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoic acid ethyl ester by HPLC and IR spectroscopy. Using solution IR spectroscopy, pseudo-first order rate constants for the “iClick” reaction of [Rh(Cp*)(N3)(bpyR,R)]CF3SO3, R = OCH3, H or COOCH3 and an excess of 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoic acid ethyl ester were also determined to be 2 ¬ 4×10-3 s-1. These experiments show that complexes with electron-rich coligands react faster than those with electron-deficient ligands. Furthermore, rate constants were higher for the rhodium versus ruthenium azide complexes. Second order rate constants were determined by 19F NMR spectroscopy investigation of the reaction of 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoic acid ethyl ester with [Ru(N3)(bpyR,R)(p-cym)]PF6 with R = OCH3, H or COOCH3 as well as [Ru(N3)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 at 20 °C. The alkyne was used at approximately the same molar amount as the ruthenium azide complexes and rate constants were obtained in the range of 1 - 2×10-2 L mol-1 s-1. These are higher than those reported for the Staudinger ligation but lower than those of the strain-promoted alkyne-azide cycloaddition. Thus, the method appears to be suitable for biolabeling applications. Furthermore, the activation energy of the reaction of [Ru(N3)(bpy)(p-cym)]PF6 with 4,4,4-trifluoro-2-butynoic acid ethyl ester was determined as 46.1 kJ mol-1 by variable-temperature NMR studies at -20 to +20 °C. 19F NMR spectra recordet at -20 °C showed one additional signal for the N1-coordinated triazolate in addition to the N2-coordinated one which however disappeared upon warming to room temperature. Using DFT methods, the geometry of [Ru(N3)(bpy)(hmb)]CF3SO3 was optimized und showed that only about 25 – 30% of all possible trajectories enable access to the azide group for attacking alkyne molecules. Therefore, the reaction is expected to be slower than that of less-shielded organoazide compounds by a factor of four. Thus, the “iClick” reaction of the metal azide complexes evaluated with electron-deficient alkynes shows rate constants comparable to established bioconjugation reactions. In future work, the potential of additional metal azide building blocks should be investigated, and the influence of other alkyne coupling partners studied.

Asymmetric nitrene transfer reactions via metalloradical catalysis (MRC) with azides has attracted research interest because of its fundamental and practical importance. The resulting nitrogen-containing units are recurrent motifs in biologically important molecules and can serve as versatile precursors in organic synthesis. The [Co(D2-Por*)] have emerged as a new class of catalysts for asymmetric aziridination and C-H amination. These metalloradical catalysts have been shown to be highly effective for the asymmetric intermolecular aziridination of a broad scope of substrates with different classes of azides with excellent to good enantioselectivity. The intramolecular C-H amination utilizing various azides can allow for the construction of diverse nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds.