Multidrug resistance phosphoglycoprotein (MDR1/P-gp) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) were first isolated in chemoresistant cancer cells and have since been found in a variety of normal tissue, including the placenta. The potential function of MDR1/P-gp and BCRP in the human placenta is to protect the fetus from maternally circulating endogenous steroids and hormones, therapeutic drugs and toxins. The objective of this study was to examine the role of maternal steroids in the regulation of MDR1/P-gp and BCRP in the human placenta. Trophoblast cells were isolated from term placenta tissues and immunohistochemistry, western blot analysis and transport studies were used to determine the effect of maternal steroids on MDR1/P-gp and BCRP regulation. Maternal steroids, present at high concentrations in maternal serum, did not have an effect on BCRP in human syncytiotrophoblast. Estrogen and progesterone did not alter MDR1/P-gp levels in human syncytiotrophoblast, but cortisol significantly decreased MDR1/P-gp levels.

Multidrug resistance phosphoglycoprotein (MDR1/P-gp) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) were first isolated in chemoresistant cancer cells and have since been found in a variety of normal tissue, including the placenta. The potential function of MDR1/P-gp and BCRP in the human placenta is to protect the fetus from maternally circulating endogenous steroids and hormones, therapeutic drugs and toxins. The objective of this study was to examine the role of maternal steroids in the regulation of MDR1/P-gp and BCRP in the human placenta. Trophoblast cells were isolated from term placenta tissues and immunohistochemistry, western blot analysis and transport studies were used to determine the effect of maternal steroids on MDR1/P-gp and BCRP regulation. Maternal steroids, present at high concentrations in maternal serum, did not have an effect on BCRP in human syncytiotrophoblast. Estrogen and progesterone did not alter MDR1/P-gp levels in human syncytiotrophoblast, but cortisol significantly decreased MDR1/P-gp levels.

Multidrug resistance phosphoglycoprotein (MDR1/P-gp) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) were first isolated in chemoresistant cancer cells and have since been found in a variety of normal tissue, including the placenta. The potential function of MDR1/P-gp and BCRP in the human placenta is to protect the fetus from maternally circulating endogenous steroids and hormones, therapeutic drugs and toxins. The objective of this study was to examine the role of maternal steroids in the regulation of MDR1/P-gp and BCRP in the human placenta. Trophoblast cells were isolated from term placenta tissues and immunohistochemistry, western blot analysis and transport studies were used to determine the effect of maternal steroids on MDR1/P-gp and BCRP regulation. Maternal steroids, present at high concentrations in maternal serum, did not have an effect on BCRP in human syncytiotrophoblast. Estrogen and progesterone did not alter MDR1/P-gp levels in human syncytiotrophoblast, but cortisol significantly decreased MDR1/P-gp levels.

Malaria is a devastating global health issue that affects approximately 200 million people yearly and over half a million deaths are caused by this parasitic protozoan disease. Most commercially available drugs only target the blood stage form of the parasite, but the only way to ensure proper elimination is to treat the exoerythrocytic stages of the parasite development cycle. There is a demand for the discovery of new liver stage antimalarial compounds as there are only two current FDA approved drugs for the treatment of liver stage parasites, one of which fails to eliminate dormant forms and the other inducing hemolytic anemia in patients with G6PD deficiency. In efforts to address the dire need for liver stage drugs, we developed a high-throughput liver stage drug-screening assay to identify liver stage active compounds from a wide variety of chemical libraries with known blood stage activity. The liver stage screen led us to further investigate an old, abandoned compound known as menoctone. Menoctone was developed as a liver stage active antimalarial, however, the development of more potent compounds led to the abandonment of further menoctone research. Our research demonstrated that resistant parasites can transmit mutations through mosquitoes, which was previously believed to not be possible. Furthermore, we studied a novel genetic marker that may indicate potential resistance against malaria parasite infection and the cytotoxic effects associated with the disease. Future experiments aim to identify and advance our methods for the elimination of Plasmodium exoerythrocytic parasites.

Multidrug resistance phosphoglycoprotein (MDR1/P-gp) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) were first isolated in chemoresistant cancer cells and have since been found in a variety of normal tissue, including the placenta. The potential function of MDR1/P-gp and BCRP in the human placenta is to protect the fetus from maternally circulating endogenous steroids and hormones, therapeutic drugs and toxins. The objective of this study was to examine the role of maternal steroids in the regulation of MDR1/P-gp and BCRP in the human placenta. Trophoblast cells were isolated from term placenta tissues and immunohistochemistry, western blot analysis and transport studies were used to determine the effect of maternal steroids on MDR1/P-gp and BCRP regulation. Maternal steroids, present at high concentrations in maternal serum, did not have an effect on BCRP in human syncytiotrophoblast. Estrogen and progesterone did not alter MDR1/P-gp levels in human syncytiotrophoblast, but cortisol significantly decreased MDR1/P-gp levels.

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Background The Breast Cancer Resistance Protein (BCRP) drug transporter is important for drug disposition and plays a critical role in regulating drug entry into the brain. Its substrate spectrum overlaps with substrates of Multi Drug Resistance Protein 1 (MDR1, P-gp), which influences and complicates the interpretation of data on drug distribution into tissues (e.g. brain). Distinguishing BCRP mediated transport from the transport by the MDR1 is often problematic. However, with new in vitro tools, this is now possible. In this project, two drug compounds, i.e. Dantrolene and Ritonavir, were investigated using these new in vitro models. The results from the experimental in vitro assay were matched with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Using coarse-grained (CG) simulations, a model of the BCRP transporter in a lipid bilayer was built, this model is based on the human BCRP structure revealed by Taylor et al (2017). Simulations were run for Dantrolene (a known substrate of BCRP) independently three times, and another with Ritonavir (a non-substrate) three times. Aim To determine substrate specificity for the BCRP transporter for two compounds, and to construct a CG model of BCRP transporter to see whether in silico methods can be used as an alternative for assessing substrate specificity.  Methods Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) II cell line with no endogenous canine MDR1 (cMDR1) expression (MDCKcMDR1-KO), overexpressing human MDR1 (hMDR1) (MDCK-hMDR1cMDR1-KO) and stable expression of human BCRP (hBCRP) (MDCK-hBCRPcMDR1-KO) cells were cultured and used in Transwell experiments. Samples were analyzed using LC-MS/MS to determine the substrate concentrations. Apparent permeability and efflux ratio was calculated and evaluated.  MD simulations used the Martini 3 CG force field, and were run with Gromacs (version 2020.4). Tools including MODELLER, INSANE and others were used to construct the initial model (Webster, 2000; Wassenaar et al., 2015), for parameterization of substrate and non-substrate molecules. And visual inspection was done with the visual molecular dynamics (VMD) program and PyMOL. Results In vitro transport experiment confirmed that Dantrolene is a BCRP specific substrate, and Ritonavir is MDR1 specific substrate. Following simulations of these two compounds, Dantrolene is observed to stay in the transmembrane domains (TMD) for a certain period (on average several hundreds of nanoseconds), while Ritonavir is not found to bind in the TMD, which provides a proof of concept for future studies.

Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ ABCG2), an ATP-binding cassette half transporter, confers multidrug resistance (MDR) to a series of antitumor agents such as mitoxantrone, daunorubicin, SN-38, and topotecan, and often limits the efficacy of chemotherapy. Recent studies have indicated that a putative estrogen response element (ERE) is located in the promoter region of the BCRP gene. However, whether and how BCRP is regulated transcriptionally by toremifene (TOR) remains unknown. In the present study, two plasmid vectors have been designed to express the wild-Type full-length BCRP cDNA enforced driven by its endogenous promoter containing a functional ERE and a constitutive cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter as control, respectively, which were transfected into estrogenresponsive MCF-7 and estrogen-independent MDA-MB-231 human breast adenocarcinoma cell lines. We showed that toremifene alone significantly downregulated BCRP mRNA and protein levels in estrogen receptor a (ERa)-positiveMCF- 7 cells in a dose-dependent manner, and the inhibitory effect was partially reversed by estrone (E1). Furthermore, gel shift assays demonstrated that specific binding of ERa to the ERE in the BCRP promoter is essential for transcriptional inhibition of BCRP by toremifene. Interestingly, toremifene alone increased the cellular accumulation of mitoxantrone inBCRPtransfected cells, suggesting that TOR indeed inhibits BCRPmediated drug efflux and overcome drug resistance. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing a direct effect of toremifene on BCRP. Our results thus indicate that toremifene by itself downregulates BCRP expression to reverse BCRP-mediated atypical multidrug resistance via a novel transcriptionally mechanism, which might be involved inTOR-ERcomplexes binding to theEREofBCRP promoter to repress transcription of BCRP gene.

Einleitung Der intensive Einsatz von Pflanzenschutzmitteln in der konventionellen Landwirtschaft kann zum Eintrag von Rückständen in die Nahrungskette führen. Milchliefernde Rinder nehmen Pflanzenschutzmittelrückstände mit dem Futter auf, die durch aktive Sekretion in die Milch eine Gefährdung für sensible Bevölkerungsgruppen, wie Kinder, verursachen könnten. Die in nationalen Rückstandskontrollen untersuchten Milchproben unterschreiten zwar in der Regel die gesetzlich festgelegten Höchstgrenzen (Maximum Residue Level, MRL), jedoch kann eine andauernde Belastung mit Pflanzenschutzmitteln die Entstehung chronischer Erkrankungen, wie Morbus Parkinson und Kinderleukämie, fördern. Im Rindereuter stellt der ATP-binding cassette Transporter der Subfamilie G2 (ABCG2) den wichtigsten Transportweg für Fremdstoffe in die Milch dar. Mit seinem breiten Substratspektrum ist der bovine ABCG2-Transporter (bABCG2) in der Lage, unterschiedliche Substrate in die Kuhmilch zu transportieren. Jedoch ist bislang unklar, ob auch Pflanzenschutzmittel bABCG2-vermittelt in die Milch sezerniert werden können und ob die gleichzeitige Aufnahme mehrerer Rückstände die bABCG2-Effluxaktivität beeinflusst. Ziele der Untersuchungen Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Identifikation von Pflanzenschutzmitteln als mögliche Substrate des bovinen Effluxtransporters. Weiterhin wurde untersucht, ob zwischen zwei Wirkstoffen synergistische oder antagonistische Effekte am bABCG2-Transporter auftreten. Material und Methoden Es wurden 14 häufig in der konventionellen Landwirtschaft eingesetzte Pflanzenschutzmittel in 0,1-, 1- und 10-facher MRL-Konzentration, in Bezug auf essbare Gewebe von Rindern, untersucht. Weiterhin wurden sechs Kombinationen aus jeweils zwei Wirkstoffen ausgewählt. Im WST-1 (Water Soluble Tetrazolium 1) Assay wurden MDCKII-bABCG2-Zellen in aufsteigender Konzentration mit den Pflanzenschutzmitteln inkubiert (72 h) und die Zellvitalität ermittelt. Nach Inkubation der MDCKII-bABCG2- und MDCKII-Mock-Zellen mit den ausgewählten Pflanzenschutzmitteln oder den Kombinationen (4 h) wurde der Hoechst 33342-Akkumulationsassay durchgeführt. Dabei führt eine Interaktion des Pflanzenschutzmittels mit dem bABCG2-Transporter zu einer intrazellulären Anreicherung des Hoechst 33342-Farbstoffes. Für die Identifikation signifikanter Unterschiede wurden jeweils mindestens zwölf Monolayer auf Normalverteilung (Shapiro-Wilk-Test) überprüft und eine Einweg-Varianzanalyse mit Holm-Šidák post hoc Test (p ≤ 0,05) durchgeführt. Ergebnisse Nachdem eine Beeinträchtigung der Zellvitalität durch die ausgewählten Pflanzenschutzmittel in 0,1- bis 10-facher MRL-Konzentration ausgeschlossen wurde, konnte im Hoechst 33342-Assay für Chlorpyrifos-methyl und Tebuconazol ab 0,1-facher MRL-Konzentration eine signifikante Zunahme der intrazellulären Hoechst 33342-Gehalte im Vergleich zur unbehandelten Kontrolle nachgewiesen werden. Für Diflufenican, Glyphosat, Methiocarb, Prochloraz, Rimsulfuron sowie Thiacloprid konnte in 1- und 10-facher MRL-Konzentration und für Iprodion sowie Ioxynil in 10-facher MRL-Konzentration eine signifikant erhöhte Hoechst 33342-Anreicherung detektiert werden. Darüber hinaus führte eine gleichzeitige Applikation von Methiocarb und Chlorpyrifos-methyl in 1-facher MRL-Konzentration, sowie von Glyphosat und Rimsulfuron in 10-facher MRL-Konzentration zu einer synergistischen Steigerung der Farbstoffakkumulation. Schlussfolgerung Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass das MDCKII-Zellmodell in Kombination mit dem Hoechst 33342-Assay eine valide Methode darstellt, um Wechselwirkungen einzelner und kombinierter Pflanzenschutzmittel zu detektieren. Insgesamt konnten unterhalb gesetzlich festgelegter MRL-Werte acht Pflanzenschutzmittel als potentielle bABCG2-Substrate identifiziert, sowie additive Effekte von Wirkstoffkombinationen nachgewiesen werden. Durch die Aufnahme von Pflanzenschutzmitteln mit dem Futter könnten diese aktiv in die Milch sezerniert werden und somit eine Gefahr für den Verbraucher darstellen:1 Einleitung 1 2 Literaturübersicht 4 2.1 Überblick über Membrantransporter 4 2.2 ABCG2-Effluxtransporter 5 2.2.1 Überblick 5 2.2.2 Struktur 6 2.2.3 ABCG2-Transportmechanismus 8 2.2.4 Spezifität der ABCG2-Substrate und Inhibitoren 9 2.2.5 Gewebeexpression 11 2.2.6 Bedeutung 12 2.2.7 Regulation der ABCG2-Transportaktivität 14 2.3 Fremdstoffsekretion der bovinen Milchdrüse 16 2.3.1 Funktionelle Anatomie 16 2.3.2 Transportmechanismen 16 2.3.3 Fremdstofftransporter 17 2.3.4 Bedeutung des ABCG2-Transporters 19 2.4 Pestizide 20 2.4.1 Überblick 20 2.4.2 Einsatz von Pflanzenschutzmitteln 21 2.4.3 Rechtliche Regelungen 21 2.4.4 MRL-Wert-Festsetzung von Pestiziden 22 2.4.5 Exposition des Verbrauchers 23 2.4.6 Gesundheitliche Risiken 24 2.4.7 Pestizide als endokrine Disruptoren 25 2.4.8 Mehrfachrückstände 26 2.4.9 Risikobewertung von Mehrfachrückständen 27 2.5 Problemstellung und Zielsetzung 29 3 Material und Methoden 30 3.1 Material 30 3.1.1 Pestizide 30 3.1.2 Chemikalien 32 3.1.3 Kit 32 3.1.4 Puffer und Lösungen 32 3.1.5 Zellkultur 33 3.1.6 Geräte 34 3.2 Methoden 35 3.2.1 Allgemeine zellbiologische Methoden 35 3.2.1.1 Kultivierung 35 3.2.1.2 Passagieren 35 3.2.1.3 Bestimmung der Zellzahl 35 3.2.1.4 Kryokonservierung 36 3.2.2 Bestimmung der Zellvitalität mittels WST-1 Zytotoxizitätstest 36 3.2.3 Quantitative Proteinbestimmung mittels BCA-Assay 38 3.2.4 Ermittlung von Interaktionen am bABCG2-Transporter 38 3.2.4.1 Aussaat und Vorbehandlung 39 3.2.4.2 Durchführung des Hoechst 33342-Assays 40 3.2.5 Detektion von Pestizidwechselwirkungen am bABCG2-Transporter 41 3.3 Statistik 42 4 Ergebnisse 43 4.1 Auswahl der Pestizide und ihrer Konzentrationen 43 4.2 Auswahl der Pestizidkombinationen 46 4.3 Einfluss der Pestizide auf die Zellvitalität 48 4.4 Interaktionen von Pestiziden am bABCG2-Transporter 53 4.5 Pestizidwechselwirkungen am bABCG2-Transporter 56 5 Diskussion 60 5.1 Zellmodell 60 5.2 Zellvitalitätsstudien in MDCKII-bABCG2-Zellen 61 5.3 Pestizide als potentielle bABCG2-Substrate 64 5.4 Wechselwirkungen von Pestiziden am bABCG2-Transporter 75 5.5 Risiken potentieller bABCG2-Substrate 79 6 Zusammenfassung 80 7 Summary 82 8 Literaturverzeichnis 84 9 Anhang 106 10 Danksagung 111

Mother's milk provides multiple benefits to the offspring. However, xenobiotics transferred into breast milk may pose a risk to the nursing infant. The breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) actively transports xenobiotics into breast milk. BCRP also transports nutrients, like riboflavin, and together with recently identified riboflavin transporters (RFT), may provide a mechanism for riboflavin secretion into breast milk. Expression of RFT in the mammary gland remained unknown. Our objective was to characterize Bcrp and Rft mRNA expression in the mammary gland of FVB/N mice, and investigate a strategy to decrease excretion of BCRP-transported xenobiotics into the milk using riboflavin intervention. Rft and Bcrp mRNA were upregulated in the mammary gland of lactating mice. An intravenous riboflavin administration significantly reduced the levels of BCRP-transported cimetidine in milk. This study demonstrates the use of riboflavin to exploit the function of mammary BCRP in order to reduce xenobiotic secretion into breast milk.