Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2007. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 177-212).

No description available.

Bacillus anthracis is the causative agent of the disease anthrax and poses a threat due to its potential to be used as a biological weapon. The spore form of this bacterium is an extremely resistant structure, making spore decontamination exceptionally challenging. During spore germination, nutrient germinants interact with Ger receptors, triggering a cascade of events. A crucial event in this process is degradation of the cortex peptidoglycan by germination-specific lytic enzymes (GSLEs), resulting in cells that are easily killed. This work investigated the regulation of the GSLE SleB by other proteins in the spore. A full understanding of how GSLEs are held inactive in the dormant spore and are activated during germination could lead to development of simplified spore decontamination strategies in which spore germination is the first step. It was found that SleB and YpeB are co-dependent. In the absence of one protein, the other is degraded during sporulation by an unidentified protease(s), although HtrC and SpoIVB are not likely responsible. Specific regions and residues of YpeB were also identified as being important to its relationship with SleB. While some evidence suggests that SleB and YpeB physically interact, a direct interaction was not observed in vivo or in vitro. YpeB was demonstrated to be proteolytically processed by HtrC during germination, resulting in stable products containing the YpeB C-terminus. The presence of inhibitory PepSY domains at the C-terminus of YpeB, coupled with YpeB degradation during germination, may suggest that YpeB processing results in SleB activation. Modification of the predominant YpeB cleavage sites or deletion of htrC reduced proteolysis, but cleavage at other sites still resulted in YpeB instability. Additionally, these changes did not have a significant impact on SleB activity. SleB regulation by other spore proteins was also examined. To test if SleB activation is Ger receptor-dependent, Bacillus subtilis strains lacking Ger receptors and/or GSLEs were germinated via non-nutrient means. Results indicated SleB can be activated independent of these proteins. B. anthracis homologs of the B. subtilis lipoproteins YlaJ and YhcN were also studied, but deletion of these genes did not result in significant changes in SleB stability or activity. / Ph. D.

Many spore forming bacteria are the causative agents of severe disease, such as Bacillus anthracis and anthrax. In these cases, the spore often acts as the infectious agent. Spores boast extreme resistance to chemical and UV damage among other bactericidal conditions. This is problematic due to the difficulty and economic costs of decontaminating exposure sites. The present work focuses on identifying and characterizing proteins active within spore germination, with a focus towards understanding the triggering of the major stages of germination. Understanding how each stage is initiated could allow for development of methods that induce these processes to efficiently germinate spores, thus facilitating cheap and effective decontamination. Sequencing of a spore transposon insertion library after exposure to germinants led to the identification of 42 genes with previously uncharacterized roles in spore germination. Fourteen of the genes, encoding proteins associated with the inner spore membrane, were further characterized. Mutants lacking these genes portrayed phenotypes consistent with failure of a GerA receptor-mediated germination response, and these genes affect the earliest stages of germination. Chemical cross-linking was used to characterize protein interactions important for stage II of spore germination. Site-directed in vivo crosslinking indicated that YpeB may exist as a multimer within the dormant spore. Further investigation of individual protein domains using bacterial two-hybrid analysis suggested that both N- and C-terminal domains of YpeB contribute to the formation of a multimer. In addition, the uncharacterized YpeB N-terminal domain was demonstrated to have strong self-association and may mediate self-association within the dormant spore. Additional genes that contribute to efficient initiation of spore germination in a GerA-dependent manner were identified via TnSeq. Chemical cross-linking of dormant spores was implemented to characterize protein interactions leading to stabilization and activation of an important enzyme that contributes to cortex degradation in stage II of germination. The presented studies employed a variety of techniques to provide additional insight into both stages of spore germination with a goal of furthering understanding of specific events that contribute to a loss of spore dormancy. / Doctor of Philosophy / Few bacterial species can undergo a specialized division process leading to the generation of a bacterial endospore. Endospores are dormant cells that boast resistance to a variety of environmental conditions that would otherwise cause bacterial cell death. These resistance traits make endospores immune to traditional bactericidal methods, making decontamination a nontrivial task. Further complicating the matter, spores are often the infectious particle of the associated disease, including hospital acquired diarrhea, infant botulism, anthrax, and many others. Presented work focuses on furthering understanding the process by which a dormant spore returns to a typical growing bacteria cell. Comprehension of major steps in this process may lead to novel methods for spore cleanup in which mechanisms within the spore are subverted to force a return to a typical bacterial cell state.

Face à l’émergence de pathogènes multi-résistants aux antibiotiques classiques, et au développement des armes biologiques, la découverte de nouveaux agents antimicrobiens reste un enjeu majeur de santé public. Dans ce contexte, la conception d’oligomères peptidomimétiques, capables de mimer le caractère amphiphile et la structure en hélice des peptides antimicrobiens naturels, effecteurs clés de l’immunité innée, offre d’intéressantes perspectives. Il a été établi que des foldamères à base d’urées amphipathiques, structurés en hélice-2,5, possédaient une forte activité bactéricide contre Bacillus anthracis, bactérie considérée comme une arme biologique potentielle. En vue d’optimiser l’activité anthracidale et la sélectivité in vitro de la première génération de composés, une étude relation structure-activité a été initiée en réalisant une série de modifications (i.e. séquence primaire, longueur et squelette de l’oligourée). Des oligomères originaux possédant des motifs isostères de type thiourée et guanidine ont ainsi été préparés en solution puis sur support solide. Des études conformationnelles approfondies soulignèrent que seule l’insertion de lien thiourée à proximité du dipôle négatif était bien tolérée par l’hélice-2,5. Parallèlement, les études in vivo ont montré une forte stabilité des oligourées avec une accumulation sélective dans le rein ainsi qu’une protection partielle des souris contre l’infection systémique par Bacillus anthracis. Enfin l’étude de l’interaction de ces oligourées avec des membranes lipidiques modèles a confirmé leur capacité à perturber les membranes et a mis en avant des mécanismes d’action différents selon le type de lipides utilisés. / The increasing antibiotic resistance among pathogens and the emergence of biological weapons have highlighted the urgent need of new antimicrobial agents. In this context, the design of peptidomimetics as urea-based foldamers, capable of mimicking the amphiphilic character and conformation of natural antimicrobial peptides, key effector molecules of innate immunity, offers new prospects. It has been previously established that amphipathic oligourea 2.5-helices have a strong bactericidal activity against Bacillus anthracis, bacteria considered as a potential biological warfare agent. Based on these results and with the aim of optimizing the potency and selectivity in vitro of the first generation of compounds, a structure-activity relationship study was carried out by performing series of modifications on a lead compound (i.e. side-chain replacement, size and backbone modifications). Among them, new series oligomers incorporating isosteric substitutions such as thiourea and guanidine moieties were prepared in solution then on solid support. Interestingly, the conformational studies revealed that only the insertion of thiourea linkage near the negative end of the helix dipole was well-tolerated by the 2.5-helix. Concurrently, in vivo studies highlighted a strong stability of the lead oligourea with a selective accumulation in the kidneys as well as a partial protection of the mice after systemic infection by Bacillus anthracis. Finally, biophysical interaction studies of selected oligoureas with model membranes confirmed their capacity to disturb membranes and showed different mechanisms of action depending on the lipid composition.

The ability to produce toxins is spread among a huge variety of bacterial strains. A very prominent class of bacterial protein toxins is the family of binary AB toxins sharing a common mode of intoxication. A pore forming component B binds and translocates an enzymatic component A into the cytosol of target cells exhibiting a fatal mode of action. These components are supposed to be not toxic themselves but both required for cell toxicity. Anthrax toxin produced by the Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus anthracis is the best studied binary toxin especially since its use as a biological weapon in the context of the attacks of 9/11 in 2001. In contrast to other binary toxins, Anthrax toxin possesses two different enzymatic components, edema factor (EF), a calcium- and calmodulin-dependent adenylat-cyclase and lethal factor (LF), a zinc-dependent metalloprotease. Protective antigen (PA) is the pore-forming component responsible for binding and translocation. Clostridium botulinum possesses in addition to the well known botulinum toxin (Botox) a variety of other toxins, such as the binary C2 toxin. C2 toxin is composed of the binding and translocation moiety C2II and the enzymatic moiety C2I acting as an actin-ADP-ribosyltransferase. In this study, the mode of translocation and the binding kinetics to the enzymatic component were studied in a biophysical experimental setup. In chapter 2, the binding of the N-terminal fractions EFN and LFN to the PA channel are analyzed in artificial bilayer membranes revealing lower binding affinity compared to full-length EF and LF. Other biophysical properties like voltage-dependency and ionic-strength dependency are not influenced. The results suggest that additional forces are involved in the binding process, than those concerning the N-terminus exclusively, as it was supposed previously. As the treatment of an Anthrax infection with antibiotics is often medicated very late due to the lack of early symptoms, tools to prevent intoxication are required. 4-aminoquinolones like chloroquine are known to block the PA channel, thereby inhibiting intoxication but they also lead to severe side-effects. In chapter 3 new promising agents are described that bind to PA in artificial bilayer systems, elucidating common motives and features which are necessary for binding to PA in general. The possible interaction of Anthrax and C2 toxin is investigated by measuring the binding of one enzymatic component to the respective other toxin’s pore (chapter 4). Interestingly, in vitro experiments using the black lipid bilayer assay show that PA is able to bind to C2I resulting in half saturation constants in the nanomolar range. Furthermore, in vivo this combination of toxin components exhibits cell toxicity in human cell lines. This is first-time evidence that a heterologous toxin combination is functional in in vitro and in vivo systems. In contrast, C2II is able to bind to EF as well as to LF in vitro, whereas in in vivo studies almost no toxic effect is detected. In the case of PA, an N-terminal His6-tag attached to the enzymatic subunit increased the binding affinity (chapter 5). A His6-tag attached to not related proteins also led to high binding affinities, providing the possibility to establish PA as a general cargo protein. In chapter 6 a set of different molecules and proteins is summarized, which are either related or not related to binary toxins, PA is able to bind. In first line, the presence of positive charges is found to be responsible for binding to PA which is in accordance to the fact that PA is highly cation selective. Furthermore, we present evidence that different cationic electrolytes serve as a binding partner to the PA channel. In the last decade another toxin has aroused public attention as it was found to be responsible for a rising number of nosocomial infections: Clostridium difficile CDT toxin. The mode of action of the enzymatic subunit CDTa is similar to C2I of C2 toxin, acting as an ADP-ribosylating toxin. The channel forming and binding properties of CDT toxin are studied in artificial bilayer membranes (chapter 7). We found that two different types of channels are formed by the B component CDTb. The first channel is similar to that of iota toxin’s Ib of Clostridium perfringens with comparable single channel conductance, selectivity and binding properties to the enzymatic subunit CDTa. The formation of this type of channel is cholesterol-dependent, whereas in the absence of cholesterol another kind of channel is observed. This channel has a single channel conductance which is rather high compared to all other binary toxin channels known so far, it is anion selective and does not show any binding affinity to the enzymatic component CDTa. The results reveal completely new insights in channel formation properties and the flexibility of a pore-forming component. Additionally, these findings suggest further possibilities of toxicity of the pore forming component itself which is not known for any other binary toxin yet. Therefore, the pathogenic role of this feature has to be studied in detail. / Die Fähigkeit, Toxine zu produzieren, ist unter verschiedensten Bakterienstämmen sehr verbreitet. Zu diesen Toxinen zählt auch die Familie der binären AB-Toxine, die hauptsächlich von Bakterien der Gattung Bacillus und Clostridium gebildet werden. Charakteristisch für diese bakteriellen Proteintoxine ist der Wirkungsmechanismus der Zellintoxikation. Eine porenformende Untereinheit B bindet eine enzymatische Untereinheit A und transportiert diese in das Zytosol von Zielzellen, die dort tödliche Wirkung entfalten. Es wird angenommen, dass die einzelnen Komponenten an sich nicht toxisch sind, sondern nur in Kombination Zellvergiftung auslösen. Anthrax-Toxin, das von dem Gram-positiven Bakterium Bacillus anthracis produziert wird, ist das bekannteste und am besten untersuchte binäre Toxin, besonders seit es im Jahr 2001 als Biowaffe eingesetzt wurde. Im Gegensatz zu anderen binären Toxinen besitzt das Anthrax-Toxin zwei enzymatische Komponenten: Edema Factor (EF), eine kalzium- und calmodulinabhängige Adenylatzyklase, und Lethal Factor (LF), eine zinkabhängige Metalloprotease. Protective Antigen (PA) ist die porenformende Komponente, die für die Binding und die Translokation der enzymatischen Untereinheiten verantwortlich ist. Clostridium botulinum produziert neben dem bekannten Botulinumtoxin (Botox) eine Reihe weiterer Toxine, unter anderem das binäre C2 Toxin. Dieses besteht aus der Binde- und Translokationskomponente C2II und der enzymatischen Komponente C2I, die als ADP-Ribosyltransferase fungiert. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit werden der Translokationsmechanismus und die kinetischen Bindeeigenschaften dieser Toxine biophysikalisch untersucht. In Kapitel 2 wird die Bindung der N-terminalen Fragmente EFN und LFN an den PA-Kanal in künstlichen Lipidmembranen analysiert. Obwohl die Spannungs- und Ionenstärkeabhängigkeit unverändert sind, weisen die verkürzten Proteine deutlich geringe Bindeaffinitäten zu PA im Vergleich zu den vollständigen Proteinen auf. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass, anders als bisher angenommen, weitere Kräfte als die zwischen dem N-Terminus und dem PA-Kanal eine Rolle für die Bindung der enzymatischen Komponente spielen. Da bei einer Anthraxinfektion häufig keine frühen Symptome sichtbar sind, erfolgt die Behandlung mit Antibiotika in der Regel relativ spät. Daher werden neue Wirkstoffe benötigt, um einer Intoxikation vorzubeugen. Es ist bekannt, dass 4-Aminoquinolone, wie zum Beispiel Chloroquin, in der Lage sind, die PA-Pore zu blockieren und somit eine Zellvergiftung zu verhindern, allerdings haben diese Wirkstoffe starke Nebenwirkungen. In Kapitel 3 werden neue, vielversprechende Wirkstoffe beschrieben, die an PA binden können und Aufklärung darüber geben, welche Eigenschaften für die Bindung an PA im Allgemeinen verantwortlich sind. Des Weiteren wird untersucht, ob eine Kreuzreaktion zwischen den Komponenten des Anthrax- und C2-Toxins möglich ist (Kapitel 4). Dazu wird die Bindung einer enzymatischen Komponente an die Pore des entsprechenden anderen Toxins gemessen. Interessanterweise ergeben in vitro Experimente an künstlichen Lipidmembranen, dass PA an C2I bindet und in vivo Vergiftungen an humanen Zelllinien auslöst. Damit wird zum ersten Mal gezeigt, dass eine heterologe Toxinkombination sowohl in vitro als auch in vivo funktionell ist. C2II hingegen ist zwar in der Lage, EF und LF zu binden, die Transportrate in Zielzellen ist jedoch sehr gering. Im Fall von PA bewirkt ein N-terminaler His6-tag, der an die enzymtischen Einheiten gekoppelt ist, eine Erhöhung der Bindeaffinität, beschrieben in Kapitel 5. Dies ist sowohl für nah verwandte Proteine der Fall als auch für Proteine, die nicht im Zusammenhang mit binären Toxinen stehen. Somit eröffnet sich die Möglichkeit, PA als universelles Transportprotein zu nutzen. In Kapitel 6 werden verschiedene Moleküle und Proteine beschrieben, die in der Lage sind, an PA zu binden. Vor allem positive Ladungen scheinen für die Bindung an PA-Kanäle verantwortlich zu sein, was mit der Tatsache, dass PA stark kationenselektiv ist, im Einklang steht. Des Weiteren wird zum ersten Mal beschrieben, dass verschiedene Kationen selbst als Bindepartner fungieren können. Seit einigen Jahren ist ein weiteres Toxin in den Fokus der Öffentlichkeit gerückt, da es zunehmend für nosokomiale Infektionen verantwortlich gemacht wird: CDT-Toxin von Clostridium difficile. Wie das C2-Toxin besitzt CDT-Toxin ADP-Ribosyltransferaseaktivität, was zu irreversiblen Schäden des Aktin- Zytoskeletts und somit zum Zelltod führt. Die biophysikalischen Eigenschaften, betreffend Porenbildung und Bindeaffinität des CDT-Toxins werden in Kapitel 7 beschrieben. Wir zeigen, dass die B Komponente CDTb fähig ist, zwei unterschiedliche Kanäle zu bilden. Einer dieser Kanäle ist dem des Iota-Toxins von Clostridium perfringens ähnlich, die Einzelkanalleitfähigkeit, Selektivität und Bindeeigenschaften sind vergleichbar. Die Bildung dieses Kanals ist abhängig von Cholesterin, wohingegen in Abwesenheit von Cholesterin überwiegend ein anderer Kanal geformt wird. Dieser zeigt eine für einen binären Toxinkanal ungewöhnlich hohe Einzelkanalleitfähigkeit, der Kanal ist anionselektiv und weist keinerlei Bindeaffinität zu der enzymatischen Komponente CDTa auf. Die Ergebnisse offenbaren neue Einblicke in die Formierung von Toxinkanälen und deuten darauf hin, dass dieses Toxin durch die Flexibilität der Kanalbildung möglicherweise zusätzliche Fähigkeiten besitzt, Zellintoxikation auszulösen. Dennoch ist die physiologische und pathogene Rolle dieser Eigenschaft noch weitestgehend ungeklärt und bedarf intensiver Untersuchung.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Alabama at Birmingham, 2007. / Title from PDF title page (viewed Feb. 4, 2010). Additional advisors: Subramaniam Ananthan, David E. Graves, Craig D. Smith, Sadanandan E. Velu. Includes bibliographical references.

Bacillus anthracis, the etiological agent of anthrax, is a spore- forming, toxin- producing bacterium. Currently, treatment of B. anthracis infections requires a 60- day antibiotic regimen. However, better therapeutics are required. Therefore, this study looked at the effect of levofloxacin and linezolid on B. anthracis cell viability, toxin production and spore formation using in vitro static models and a pharmacodynamic model. It was hypothesized that the combination would be the most effective at preventing toxin and spore production resulting in greater bacterial killing. However, these studies suggest otherwise. Nevertheless, clinically, the combination therapy may be more effective in rapid killing of vegetative B. anthracis and may be able to reduce the duration of therapy (by reducing the likelihood of spore survival). Therefore, the clinical benefit of combined therapy on long-term recurrence cannot be determined from these in vitro models. Further investigation with combination therapy is warranted. / October 2015

Alternative sigma factors play a key role in the physiology of Bacillus anthracis by regulating the transcription of the appropriate genes required for adaptation and survival. Under specific conditions, alternative sigma factors activate transcription by binding to the promoter of the genes relevant to the condition and initiate synthesis of RNA. Here we report that the transcription of predicted sigI gene in B. anthracis, BAS3231, is induced by elevated temperatures and involved in the regulation of virulence gene expression. We show that BAS3231 is required for cell viability at elevated temperatures. We have also demonstrated that mutation in the BAS3231 gene results in a decrease in virulence gene expression. Our study provides new insight into the role of alternative sigma factors in B. anthracis.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Kent State University, 2007. / Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Nov. 21, 2007). Advisor: Christopher J. Woolverton. Keywords: Bacillus, spores, electron beam irradiation, anthrax, liquid crystals, detection. Includes bibliographical references.