Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία αφορά κυρίως τη μελέτη των Αυτόνομων Φωτοβολταϊκών συστημάτων καθώς και τη μεθοδολογία σχεδιασμού τους. Αρχικά, γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στη φωτοβολταϊκή τεχνολογία και παρουσιάζονται τα πλεονεκτήματα και τα μειονεκτήματα της χρήσης της. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο, γίνεται λόγος για τα ηλιακά κύτταρα, για τον τρόπο λειτουργίας τους (φωτοβολταϊκό φαινόμενο), για τα ηλεκτρικά χαρακτηριστικά τους, καθώς και τις παραμέτρους που τα επηρεάζουν. Το τρίτο κεφάλαιο αναφέρεται στις ομαδοποιήσεις των ηλιακών κυττάρων και κυρίως στις συστοιχίες. Παρουσιάζονται τα προβλήματα που δημιουργούνται λόγω της σκίασης και της ανομοιομορφίας στα ηλεκτρικά χαρακτηριστικά των ηλιακών κυττάρων και είναι το φαινόμενο των Απωλειών Προσαρμογής και των Τοπικών Υπερθερμάνσεων (φαινόμενο hot-spot). Κατόπιν, παρουσιάζονται οι λύσεις για την αντιμετώπιση των παραπάνω φαινομένων που είναι η χρήση των διόδων παράκαμψης και αντεπιστροφής. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο, γίνεται εκτενής αναφορά στους τύπους των συσσωρευτών, τη λειτουργία τους, καθώς και στα προβλήματα που αυτοί αντιμετωπίζουν κατά τη διάρκεια της ζωής τους (θειίκωση, στρωματοποίηση, γήρανση). Επιπλέον, παρουσιάζεται η χρήση των συσσωρευτών σε φωτοβολταϊκά συστήματα. Στο τελευταίο κεφάλαιο, αναπτύσσεται η μεθοδολογία σχεδιασμού ενός αυτόνομου φωτοβολταϊκού συστήματος, που συνίσταται στον υπολογισμό τριών χαρακτηριστικών μεγεθών του, δηλαδή της γωνίας κλίσης β της συστοιχίας, της επιφάνειας Α αυτής και της χωρητικότητας των συσσωρευτών C. Έχοντας ως δεδομένα τις απαιτήσεις του φορτίου και τις τιμές της ηλιακής ακτινοβολίας σε οριζόντια επιφάνεια με τη χρήση ηλεκτρονικού υπολογιστή, εκλέγεται ο κατάλληλος συνδυασμός των παραπάνω μεγεθών β, Α, C ώστε να ικανοποιούνται οι απαιτήσεις του συστήματος. / This thesis mainly concerns the study of autonomous photovoltaic systems and their design methodology. Initially, an introduction to solar technology is curried out and the advantages and disadvantages of its use are presented. The second chapter talks about solar cells, how they work (photovoltaic effect), their electrical characteristics and the parameters that affect them. The third chapter refers to groupings of solar cells and to arrays in particular. It discusses the problems created by shading and variations in the electrical characteristics of solar cells, which are the phenomenon of mismatch losses and local overheating (hot-spot phenomenon). Then, solutions are presented to address these problems, that is the use of by-pass and blocking diodes. The fourth chapter is a detailed report on the types of batteries, their operation as well as the problems they face during their life (sulfation, stratification and aging). Furthermore, we present the use of batteries in photovoltaic systems. The last chapter develops the methodology of designing a stand-alone photovoltaic system, which consists in measuring magnitudes of three characteristics, namely the angle of the array β, its surface A and the battery capacity C. Having the load requirements and the values of solar radiation on a horizontal surface as the data by using a computer, the appropriate combination of the above sizes β, A, C is chosen to meet the system requirements.

Η παρούσα διπλωματική αφορά την δυναμική ανάλυση ενός μικροδικτύου και των στοιχείων που το αποτελούν. Παρουσιάζεται η μοντελοποίηση ενός υβριδικού μικροδικτύου, με φωτοβολταϊκή μονάδα και συσσωρευτή, καθώς και ηλεκτρονικούς μετατροπείς. Η μοντελοποίηση μεταφέρεται στον ηλεκτρονικό υπολογιστή με την βοήθεια του λογισμικού ‘Simulink’, για την εξαγωγή και μελέτη των αποτελεσμάτων και των γραφικών παραστάσεων. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στη κατανεμημένη παραγωγή. Αναφέρεται ο ορισμός της, μερικά ιστορικά στοιχεία και οι λόγοι που οδηγούν στην ραγδαία ανάπτυξή της. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο αναλύονται τα χαρακτηριστικά του μικροδικτύου. Η θέση εγκατάστασης, η διασύνδεση με το κεντρικό δίκτυο και οι επιπτώσεις του σε αυτό. Επίσης, αναφέρονται τα πλεονεκτήματα και μειονεκτήματα των μικροδικτύων. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο αναφέρονται οι διάφορες τεχνολογίες παραγωγής ενέργειας σε ένα μικροδίκτυο, δίνοντας περισσότερη έμφαση στα φωτοβολταϊκά, που θα χρησιμοποιηθούν και στο μικροδίκτυο που θα μοντελοποιηθεί. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο αναφέρονται οι μονάδες αποθήκευσης που χρησιμοποιούνται σε ένα μικροδίκτυο, δίνοντας περισσότερη έμφαση στους συσσωρευτές(μπαταρίες). Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται οι ηλεκτρονικοί μετατροπείς ενός μικροδικτύου και μερικά χαρακτηριστικά της λειτουργίας τους. Περισσότερη έμφαση δίνεται στους DC/DC μετατροπείς. Στο έκτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται η μοντελοποίηση ενός υβριδικού μικροδικτύου με κύρια πηγή μια φωτοβολταϊκή διάταξη και δευτερεύουσα μια μπαταρία ιόντων λιθίου. Χρησιμοποιούνται ακόμα δύο ηλεκτρονικοί μετατροπείς συνεχούς. Η 6 μαθηματική ανάλυση έγινε με τις εξισώσεις Euler-Lagrange. Για τον έλεγχο χρησιμοποιήθηκαν δύο PI ελεγκτές. Τέλος στο έβδομο κεφάλαιο γίνεται η προσομοίωση του μικροδικτύου με το λογισμικό ‘Simulink’ και παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα της λειτουργίας μαζί με τον σχολιασμό τους. / This thesis concerns the dynamic analysis of a microgrid and its constituent elements. It presents the modeling of a hybrid microgrid with battery and PV module, as well as electronic converters. The modeling is transferred to PC with the help of 'Simulink' software, to extract and study the results and the graphs of the different variables. The first chapter is an introduction to distributed generation. It presents the definition, some historical facts and the reasons leading to its rapid development. The second chapter analyzes the characteristics of the microgrid, such as the installation, the connection to the main grid and the impact on it. They are, also, presented the advantages and disadvantages of microgrids. In the third chapter are presented the various energy generation technologies in a microgrid, with an extended reference on photovoltaics, which will be used in the microgrid modeled in this thesis. In the fourth chapter are presented the storage units used in a microgrid, emphasizing on the batteries. The fifth chapter concerns the electronic converters used in a microgrid and some features of their operation. The DC/DC converters are studied in depth. The sixth chapter consists of the modeling of a hybrid microgrid using a photovoltaic array as primary source and a lithium-ion battery as a secondary one. In addition, two DC/DC converters are used. The mathematical analysis was done with the equations Euler-Lagrange. Also, two PI controllers are used. 7 Finally, in the seventh chapter, the simulation of the microgrid is performed with the software 'Simulink' and the results are presented alongside with commentary.

Thesis (MScEng)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis investigates the credibility of the vanadium redox flow energy storage system, sometimes termed vanadium redox battery (VRB). The focus is on the use of this technology in peak-shaving and load-leveling applications. The initial problem is to find a suitable mathematical model for representing the daily load profile. A sinusoidal function is identified as an elementary approximation of the first order. Due to the periodicity characteristics that are inherent in a daily load profile, the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm is identified as a mathematical model that closely resembles a load profile. The main theme in this thesis is the determination of an optimal solution during the peak-shaving process. In this particular context, the optimal solution refers to the following: With the energy capacity of the VRB and the power rating of the entire system considered as the constraints, the interest is on (i) the constant power that the VRB can deliver in order to bring down the maximum demand quite significantly, (ii) and the time interval in which this constant power is delivered. Therefore, the VRB power delivered during peak-shaving (PVRB) and the corresponding time interval are the main two parameters under consideration in the optimization process. The mathematical algorithm that can be used to determine suitable values for these two parameters is developed. Maple" V 5.1 is used for determining the solution analytically. The obtained results are verified by simulation with Excel". The investigation into the economic benefits that may be derived from the utilization of the vanadium energy storage device is also presented. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis ondersoek die waarde en toepassing van die vadium "redox" vloei energie stoorstelsel (VRB). Die fokus is op die gebruik van hierdie tegnologie om pieklas te verminder en om laste meer egalig te maak. Die aanvanklike probleem is om 'n geskikte wiskundige model vir die daaglikse las-profiel te kry. Deur gebruik te maak van sinus-komponente en die toepassing van die Vinnige Fourier Transform (FFT) is hierdie probleem opgelos. Die hooftema van hierdie werk is om 'n analitiese oplossing te vind vir die optimale toepassing van die konsep vir pieklas vermindering. In hierdie konteks verwys die optimale oplossing na die volgende: Met die gegewe verrnoe van die VRB stelsel en drywingsvermoe van die kragelektronika is die vrae rondom (i) die konstante drywing wat die VRB kan lewer om die maksimum aanvraag van die las beduidend te verminder en (ii) die tydsduur waarin dit plaasvind. Dus is die twee veranderlikes waarvoor oplossings in die optimale proses gesoek word die drywing (PVRS) en die tyd-interval daarvan. Die wiskundige algoritme is met die hulp van Maple® V5.1 ontwikkel. Die resultate is daarna met behulp van simulasies in Excel® getoets. 'n Analise van die moontlike ekonomiese voordele is ook ondersoek.

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Submitted by Morgana Andrade (morgana.andrade@ufes.br) on 2016-04-20T19:04:43Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) dissertação eldis.pdf: 3565934 bytes, checksum: ad60827001b73b37d54a6e3d75373910 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Patricia Barros (patricia.barros@ufes.br) on 2016-04-27T13:30:26Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) dissertação eldis.pdf: 3565934 bytes, checksum: ad60827001b73b37d54a6e3d75373910 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-27T13:30:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) dissertação eldis.pdf: 3565934 bytes, checksum: ad60827001b73b37d54a6e3d75373910 (MD5) / CAPES

Issues with the dissolution and diffusion of polysulfides in liquid organic electrolytes hinder the advance of lithium–sulfur (Li-S) batteries for next generation energy storage. To trap and re-utilize the polysulfides, brush-like, zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires based interlayers were prepared ex-situ using a wet chemistry method and were coupled with a sulfur/multi-walled carbon nanotube (S/MWCNT) composite cathode. The cell with this configuration showed a good cycle life at a high current rate ascribed to (a) a strong interaction between the polysulfides and ZnO nanowires grown on conductive substrates; (b) fast electron transfer and (c) an optimized ion diffusion path from a well-organized nanoarchitecture. A praline-like flexible interlayer consisting of titanium oxide (TiO2) nanoparticles and carbon (C) nanofiber was further prepared in-situ using an electrospinning method, which allows the chemical adsorption of polysulfides throughout a robust conductive film. A significant enhancement in cycle stability and rate capability was achieved by incorporating this interlayer with a composite cathode of S/MWCNT. These results herald a new approach to building functional interlayers by integrating metal oxides with conductive frameworks. The derivatives of the TiO2/C interlayer was synthesized by changing the precursor concentration and carbonization temperature. Finally, a dual-interlayer was fabricated by simply coating titanium nitride (TiN) nanoparticles onto an electro-spun carbon nanofiber mat, which was then sandwiched with a sulfur/assembled Ketjen Black (KB) composite cathode with an ultra-high sulfur loading. The conductive polar TiN nanoparticles not only have a strong chemical affinity to polysulfides through a specific sulfur-nitrogen bond but also improve the reaction kinetics of the cell by catalyzing the conversion of the long-chain polysulfides to lithium sulfide. Besides, carbon nanofiber mat ensures mechanical robustness to TiN layer and acts as a physical barrier to block polysulfides diffusion. The incorporation of dual interlayers with sulfur cathodes offers a commercially feasible approach to improving the performance of Li-S batteries.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-14T16:52:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2014-10-24Bitstream added on 2015-05-14T16:59:44Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000823410.pdf: 5639289 bytes, checksum: 84030c2f3c6494412663683ce97cc2f4 (MD5) / Com a evolução da tecnologia das baterias, a indústria automobilística percebeu o potencial promissor dos veículos elétricos e vem investindo fortemente em carros de passeio, oferecendo o veículo híbrido (combustível líquido e eletricidade) como atrativo ao público mais conservador, além de trabalhar na evolução do sistema elétrico dos automotores. Com perspectivas de um futuro não muito distante no Brasil, este trabalho consiste no desenvolvimento de um sistema de gerenciamento de energia entre um banco de baterias de íons de lítio e supercapacitores, englobando o processo de frenagem regenerativa. A topologia de condicionamento de energia empregada consiste na conexão em cascata de dois conversores CC-CC bidirecionais de energia elétrica, cuja função é o controle da transferência de potência entre os armazenadores de energia supracitados e a máquina de tração do veículo. A energia recuperada, através da operação da máquina de tração como gerador, é armazenada nos acumuladores de energia, sendo o fluxo de energia dependente do nível de carga de cada acumulador. Para o desenvolvimento da lógica de controle do sistema, as características de carga e capacidade de transferência de potência dos elementos acumuladores de energia elétrica é levada em consideração, uma vez que é empregado um sistema híbrido de armazenadores de energia (baterias/supercapacitores), aproveitando as vantagens de cada uma das tecnologias. Para a etapa de simulação e análise da lógica de controle e para o gerenciamento do sistema, a plataforma Matlab/Simulink ® foi escolhida em função da facilidade de prototipagem através da plataforma de implementação DSpace ® . Como resultado prático desse trabalho, um protótipo de baixa escala contemplando lógica programável de gerenciamento de energia foi desenvolvido, tendo como vantagem a flexibilidade de implementação de novas ... / With the batteries’ technology evolution, the automobile industries noted the vehicle’s promising potential and comes strongly investing in passenger cars, offering the hybrid electric vehicles (liquid and electricity fuels), attracting the more conservative public, besides working on the evolution of automotive electrical systems. With prospects of a not too distant future in Brazil, this work is the development of energy management system between a battery and a supercapacitor packs, including regenerative breaking process. The electrical energy conditioning topology adopted is the cascaded configuration of two bidirectional DC- DC converters, which provide the energy power flow between energy storage components aforementioned and the vehicle traction machine. The regenerated energy, drawn from the traction machine in generator mode, is stored in the power conditioners, where the power flux depends on the charge condition of each one of the conditioners. For the control logic development, the storage system characteristics and the conditioners power transfer capacity are considered, once a hybrid energy storage system (batteries/supercapacitors) is used, taking into account the advantages of each technology. For simulation analysis and control logic management system, the Matlab/Simulink ® software was chosen because its integration to the DSpace ® platform and implementation easiness. The practical results involve a small-scale prototype, covering a programmable energy management logic, with the advantage of allowing the flexibility of new management roles implementation through programming functions

abstract: There was a growing trend in the automotive market on the adoption of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) for consumers to purchase. This was partially due to external pressures such as the effects of global warming, cost of petroleum, governmental regulations, and popularity of the vehicle type. HEV technology relied on a variety of factors which included the powertrain (PT) of the system, external driving conditions, and the type of driving pattern being driven. The core foundation for HEVs depended heavily on the battery pack and chemistry being adopted for the vehicle performance and operations. This paper focused on the effects of hot and arid temperatures on the performance of LiFePO4 (LFP) battery packs and presented a possible modeling method for overall performance. Lithium-ion battery (LIB) packs were subjected to room and high temperature settings while being cycled under a current profile created from a drive cycle. The Federal Urban Driving Schedule (FUDS) was selected and modified to simulate normal city driving situation using an electric only drive mode. Capacity and impedance fade of the LIB packs were monitored over the lifetime of the pack to determine the overall performance through the variables of energy and power fade. Regression analysis was done on the energy and power fade of the LIB pack to determine the duration life of LIB packs for HEV applications. This was done by comparing energy and power fade with the average lifetime mileage of a vehicle. The collected capacity and impedance data was used to create an electrical equivalent model (EEM). The model was produced through the process of a modified Randles circuit and the creation of the inverse constant phase element (ICPE). Results indicated the model had a potential for high fidelity as long as a sufficient amount of data was gathered. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) was performed on a fresh and cycled LFP battery. SEM results suggested a dramatic growth on LFP crystals with a reduction in carbon coating after cycling. XRD effects showed a slight uniformed strain and decrease in size of LFP olivine crystals after cycling. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Engineering 2016

abstract: Lithium ion batteries have emerged as the most popular energy storage system, but they pose safety issues under extreme temperatures or in the event of a thermal runaway. Lithium ion batteries with inorganic separators offer the advantage of safer operation. An inorganic separator for lithium ion battery was prepared by an improved method of blade coating α-Al2O3 slurry directly on the electrode followed by drying. The improved separator preparation involves a twice-coating process instead of coating the slurry all at once in order to obtain a thin (~40 µm) and uniform coat. It was also found that α-Al2O3 powder with particle size greater than the pore size in the electrode is preferable for obtaining a separator with 40 µm thickness and consistent cell performance. Unlike state-of-the-art polyolefin separators such as polypropylene (PP) which are selectively wettable with only certain electrolytes, the excellent electrolyte solvent wettability of α-Al2O3 allows the coated alumina separator to function with different electrolytes. The coated α-Al2O3 separator has a much higher resistance to temperature effects than its polyolefin counterparts, retaining its dimensional integrity at temperatures as high as 200ºC. This eliminates the possibility of a short circuit during thermal runaway. Lithium ion batteries assembled as half-cells and full cells with coated α-Al2O3 separator exhibit electrochemical performance comparable with that of polyolefin separators at room temperature. However, the cells with coated alumina separator shows better cycling performance under extreme temperatures in the temperature range of -30°C to 60°C. Therefore, the coated α-Al2O3 separator is very promising for application in safe lithium-ion batteries. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Chemical Engineering 2016

abstract: This investigation is divided into two portions linked together by the momentous reaches of electrochemistry science, principles influencing everyday phenomena as well as innovative research in the field of energy transformation. The first portion explores the strategies for flue gas carbon dioxide capture and release using electrochemical means. The main focus is in the role thiolates play as reversible strong nucleophiles with the ability to capture CO2 and form thiocarbonates. Carbon dioxide in this form is transported and separated from thiocarbonate through electrochemical oxidation to complete the release portion of this catch-and-release approach. Two testing design systems play a fundamental role in achieving an efficient CO2 catch and release process and were purposely build and adapted for this work. A maximum faradaic efficiency of seventeen percent was attained in the first membrane tests whose analysis is presented in this work. An efficiency close to thirty percent was attained with the membrane cell in recent experiments but have not been included in this manuscript. The second portion of this manuscript studies bulk stress evolution resulting from insertion/extraction of lithium in/from a lithium manganese oxide spinel cathode structure. A cantilever-based testing system uses a sophisticated, high resolution capacitive technique capable of measuring beam deflections of the cathode in the subnanometer scale. Tensile stresses of up to 1.2 MPa are reported during delithiation along with compressive stresses of 1.0 MPa during lithiation. An analysis of irreversible charge loss is attributed to surface passivation phenomena with its associated stresses of formation following patterns of tensile stress evolution. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Materials Science and Engineering 2016