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<p>Apoptosis plays a key role in the regulation and development of healthy multicellular organisms throughout their lifetimes. The mitochondria play a key role in this cellular process, as it contains proapoptotic factors, which once released into the cytosol of the cell, results in the death of the cell. The Bcl-2 family of proteins play a key role in apoptosis, acting as the gateway between life and death of the cell. Proteins such as tBid and Bax act to permeabilize the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM), releasing the proapoptotic factors into the cell’s cytosol. The interactions between these proteins and the mitochondrial outer membrane have yet to be fully understood. The lipid composition and cholesterol content of the membrane effectively inhibit or promote pore formation by Bax. Specifically, the addition of cholesterol into the membrane inhibits pore formation. This thesis attempts to further understand the effects cholesterol has on the structure of the MOM, and link those changes to the inhibited activity of Bax pore formation. MOM-like lipid bilayers were studied under varying temperatures and with the addition of cholesterol using x-ray reflectivity. Increasing temperatures from 10°C to 30°C resulted in bilayer thinning, as did decreasing cholesterol concentrations below 30%. From 10°C to 20°C, bilayer thickness showed a bell shaped profile, and changed to a linear decrease above about 20°C. This may assist Bax in pore formation, as it has also been observed to cause bilayer thinning. Increasing Cholesterol concentrations up to 30% resulted in little variation in bilayer thickness though hindrance of Bax pore formation is observed at content levels as low as 8%. Thus it is unlikely that bilayer thickening by cholesterol causes the inhibition of Bax pore formation. In addition, cholesterol was observed to increase the electron density of the core of the bilayer at concentration levels above 25%.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

<p>Cancer occurs when cells acquire a number of mutations that trigger uncontrolled cell growth. The normal cellular response to this dysregulation of growth is the activation of programmed cell death. While focus in cancer research has been mainly concentrated in the mechanism of programmed cell death at the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum is slowly emerging as an essential platform for this regulatory mechanism.</p> <p>Bcl-2 is the founding member of the Bcl-2 family of protein, which contributes to the regulation of cell death at the mitochondria and at the endoplasmic reticulum. Previously in our lab, we have shown using MCF-7 cells stably expressing Bcl-2 targeted to the endoplasmic reticulum; they were protected from estrogen deprivation induced cell death. Thus the regulatory mechanism of Bcl-2 at the endoplasmic reticulum represents an interesting avenue to improve current cancer therapeutics.</p> <p>Two approaches were utilized to identify and characterize Bcl-2 and its interacting partners at the endoplasmic reticulum. Using an affinity tag fused to Bcl-2 that has been engineered to target the endoplasmic reticulum, tandem affinity purification was utilized to identify novel Bcl-2 interacting partners when estrogen receptor positive cells are treated with estrogen deprivation. Using fluorescent protein fused to the proteins of interest, Fluorescent Lifetime Imaging Measurement (FLIM) was used to characterize the interactions of Bcl-2 and its known interacting partner at the endoplasmic reticulum. The findings of this thesis verify the applications of the two aforementioned methods in the study of Bcl-2 interacting proteins at the endoplasmic reticulum.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

<p>Bcl-2 family of proteins regulate apoptosis at the level of the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM) through both protein-protein and protein-membrane interactions. While the role of the membrane as the “locus of action” has been recognized, the detailed molecular mechanisms and the consequences of the interactions of Bcl-2 family members with the membrane are yet to be fully understood. The findings presented here focus on the dynamic interactions of Bcl-2 proteins, most notably tBid with the MOM, and their functional significance on mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. We show that the activation of tBid is a multi-step process that is regulated by MOM lipids and proteins. The rate-limiting step in the activation of tBid is an elaborate conformational change that is facilitated by Mtch2, and is required for the activation and recruitment of Bax to the MOM. Furthermore, we demonstrate that binding of both tBid and Bax to the membrane is reversible and is governed by dynamic equilibria that potentially contribute to the propagation of the permeabilization signal within the cell for the regulation of apoptosis. We report that the transfer of tBid between membranes is accelerated by Bax and restricted by Bcl-XL, whereas the transfer of Bax between membranes is slower than and not influenced by tBid. Finally, by studying the effect of varying lipid composition on Bax-mediated permeabilization, we establish that electrostatic interactions mediate the binding of both tBid and Bim to the membrane. We demonstrate that while Bim does not exhibit any preference for a specific anionic lipid, tBid requires cardiolipin in order to undergo its conformational change at the membrane in the absence of Mtch2. Taken together, our work contributes to the growing understanding of the dynamic interactions and changes in conformation of Bcl-2 proteins at the MOM.</p> / Doctor of Science (PhD)

<p>Bid is a member of the Bcl-2 family of proteins, which are known as the regula- tors of apoptosis. Bid recruits Bax, another Bcl-2 family protein, which forms large oligomers that permeabilize the mitochonrdial outer membrane during apoptosis. In this thesis, Bid complexes embedded in a mitochondria-like supported lipid bilayer were investigated using single molecule fluorescence techniques. The bilayer, con- taining a lipophilic tracer, was formed on a mica surface and ATTO647 labelled Bid was added to it. For experiments where the effect of Bax on Bid complexes was investigated, a wild type Bax or a HiLyte488 labelled Bax was added as well. The protein-bilayer sample was imaged using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF). The formation of a fluid bilayer was confirmed by the observation of the lateral diffusion of DiD. Single particle tracking of the lipid molecules was used to measure the diffusion coefficent of DiD which was determined to be 2.2μm2 /s. The TIRF images also revealed two populations of Bid complexes, immobile and mobile. The diffusion coefficient of the observed Bid complexes was determined to be about three times slower than that of DiD (0.8±0.5μm2 /s). This provides evidence that mobile Bid is embedded in the bilayer. Image analysis of immobile Bid complexes showed a step-wise decrease in the fluorescence intensity due to photobleaching. The oligomeric distribution of the immobile Bid complexes was determined from the num- ber of steps, which corresponds to the number of particles in each complex. From these distributions it was concluded that the imaged immobile Bid existed mainly as monomers. However dimer and trimer complexes of Bid were also observed. The detected oligomeric distribution was not affected by the presence of either wild type Bax or Hilyte488 Bax. However Bid was imaged for the first time participating in Bax complexes. The acquired results somewhat differ from what had been observed in confocal imaging of the same samples, where mostly larger Bid complexes (dimers and up) were detected. We attribute the difference to the superior sensitivity of the TIRF method presented here.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) is regulated by protein-protein and protein-membrane interactions between Bcl-2 family proteins. These interactions are governed by the concentrations and relative binding affinities of the proteins for each other. These affinities are altered by conformation changes of Bcl-2 family proteins resulting from interactions with each other and with membranes. How Bcl-2 proteins transition into and out of the conformations that controls their functions, and ultimately the fate of the cell, is not well understood. Here, kinetic analysis of the pore-forming Bcl-2 family member, Bax, revealed that Bax undergoes a conformational rearrangement through at least one structurally distinct intermediate that is a necessary precursor to pore formation. We discover that four cancer-associated Bax point mutants are trapped in the intermediate state, suggesting that transitions into and out of this intermediate can be modulated independently with consequences for the execution of apoptosis. Furthermore we report that the conformation changes Bax undergoes can be regulated by phosphorylation of Bax on residue S184 by the pro-survival kinase, Akt. Phosphorylation converts Bax into an anti-apoptotic protein that functions in a dominant-negative fashion. Bioinformatics revealed that in human cancers, higher levels of Bax are positively associated with high levels of PI3K/AKT pathway genes representing an added mechanism for cancer cells to evade apoptosis. Additionally we studied the interactions between Bax, the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-XL, the sensitizer BH3 protein Bad and the BH3 activator protein Bid. We uncover a new mechanism of apoptosis regulation whereby Bad binds to one monomer of a Bcl-XL dimer eliciting an activating conformation change in a tBid bound to the other monomer of the Bcl-XL dimer. This allows Bad to function as a non-competitive inhibitor of Bcl-XL, and represents a novel mechanism that significantly enhances the potency of Bad to elicit apoptosis. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Every day the human body creates billions of cells replacing damaged or unwanted cells. The death of these cells is tightly controlled and can result in disease when misregulated. Cancers arise when there is too little cell death and neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, arise from too much cell death. Much research, including this thesis, is focused on understanding how cells die because once understood, cell death can be manipulated to treat disease. Cell death ironically occurs at the mitochondria, a cellular organ normally responsible for creating the energy required for the cell to live. When cell death is initiated, the mitochondria get holes poked into them, releasing pro-death factors that irreversibly commit the cell to dying. The work presented here uncovers new information about the regulation of the hole poking process, how it is blocked in breast cancer and how the process may be modulated to treat cancers.

Tableau d’honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2004-2005 / La mort cellulaire programmée (PCD) est un processus physiologique ou pathologique permettant l’élimination sélective de cellules devenues inutiles, endommagées ou infectées pour le maintien de l’intégrité ou l’adaptation (fitness) de l’organisme ou de la population cellulaire. Chez les végétaux, les mécanismes moléculaires régulant la PCD ne sont pas encore élucidés, mais la découverte que la protéine humaine anti-PCD Bax Inhibitor-1 (BI-1) est conservée chez les plantes, pourtant dépourvues de la protéine pro-PCD Bax, en a fait un candidat fort prometteur pour l’élucidation de sentiers de mort évolutivement conservés. En ce sens, cette thèse décrit la caractérisation d’orthologues de BI-1 isolés de Brassica napus (BnBI-1) et de Nicotiana tabacum (NtBI-1). Nous avons déterminé par des analyses informatiques et des études d’expression que BI-1 est une protéine membranaire intégrale possédant sept domaines transmembranaires putatifs et localisée au réticulum endoplasmique. Des essais fonctionnels dans des cellules humaines HEK 293 ont révélé que des orthologues végétaux de BI-1 peuvent inhiber la PCD (apoptose) induite par Bax dans ces cellules. Par ailleurs, des lignées cellulaires de tabac présentant des niveaux inférieurs de la protéine NtBI-1 grâce à l’expression d’un ARNm antisens entament un programme précoce de PCD suite à une déficience en carbone, démontrant ainsi le rôle anti-PCD intrinsèque de BI-1 dans des cellules végétales. Nous avons également découvert que la protéine NtBI-1 est surexprimée en présence de cytokinines (CK) dans des cultures cellulaires de tabac, et ce à des concentrations coïncidant avec l’établissement d’une réponse de stress, un phénomène impliquant des mécanismes de régulation post-transcriptionnels. La réponse cellulaire envers les CK comprend également un influx rapide de Ca2+ de l’apoplaste vers le cytosol. Cet influx est partiellement impliqué dans l’induction de la PCD mais non dans la signalisation menant à la surexpression de BI-1. L’ensemble de nos résultats indique que BI-1 est bel et bien un régulateur négatif de la PCD végétale, qui agirait au sein d’un sentier de mort évolutivement conservé. L’augmentation de l’accumulation de la protéine NtBI-1 lors de la réponse de stress envers les CK pourrait contribuer à la survie des cellules et laisse supposer que la protéine est impliquée dans l’activité anti-sénescence des CK. BI-1 s’insère dans un sentier où son niveau d’expression influence la capacité cellulaire à résister aux stress générés entre autres par une disette en carbone, et ce potentiellement via la modulation de l’homéostasie du Ca2+ intracellulaire. / Programmed cell death (PCD) is a physiological or pathological process allowing the selective elimination of useless, damaged or infected cells with the aim of maintaining the integrity or fitness of the remaining organism or cell population. In plants, molecular mechanisms regulating PCD are not yet elucidated, but the identification of functional plant orthologs of the human anti-PCD protein Bax Inhibitor-1 (BI-1), given that the pro-PCD protein Bax is absent in the plant kingdom, revealed the potential of BI-1 as an evolutionary conserved cell death regulator. Accordingly, this thesis describes the characterization of BI-1 orthologs isolated from Brassica napus (BnBI-1) and Nicotiana tabacum (NtBI-1). While combining bioinformatics analysis and localization studies using a fusion between BnBI-1 and the green fluorescent protein, we determined that BI-1 is an integral membrane protein provided with seven putative transmembrane domains localized at the endoplasmic reticulum. We also proceeded to functional assays in human HEK 293 cells, and we demonstrated that plant BI-1 orthologs can inhibit Bax-induced PCD (apoptosis) in these mammalian cells. On the other hand, we demonstrated that tobacco cell lines expressing lower levels of the NtBI-1 protein via an antisens mRNA induced an early PCD program under carbon starvation. We also discovered the up-regulation of NtBI-1 when cultured cells were grown in the presence of cytokinins (CKs), which correlated with the establishment of a stress response. The phenomenon involved post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms of the BI-1 protein accumulation. Cellular response to CKs also involved a rapid influx of Ca2+ from the apoplast to the cytosol and this influx is partly involved in PCD induction but not in signaling leading to BI-1 modulation. Taken together, our data indicate that BI-1 is a negative regulator of plant PCD that would act in an evolutionary conserved death pathway. NtBI-1 protein over-accumulation in the stress response to CKs could contribute to cell survival and suggests the involvement of the protein in the senescence-delay activities of CKs. BI-1 is part of a pathway where its expression level influence cellular ability to resist to carbon starvation- or senescence-induced stresses, potentially via modulation of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis.