In this thesis an investigation into novel beams and optical manipulation is presented. Sculpting the phase profile of a Gaussian beam can result in the generation of a beam with unusual properties. Described in this thesis are optical vortices, Bessel beams and Airy beams. Additionally, optical manipulation was investigated using both novel beams and Gaussian beams with an emphasis on the use of a broad bandwidth laser source. The generation of multiple broadband optical trap sites was explored, and the transfer of orbital angular momentum from a broadband optical vortex to trapped microspheres was demonstrated. An introduction to the thesis and an overview of laser sources used for optical manipulation is presented in Chapters 1 and 2. Chapters 3 and 4 detail the background of optical manipulation and novel beam shaping. In Chapter 5, an investigation into the generation of multiple broadband optical trap sites is presented. Chapter 6 details the use of a ‘white light’ optical vortex to transfer orbital angular momentum to trapped microspheres. Chapter 7 presents the results of an investigation carried out using a supercontinuum source to characterise the wavelength and spatial coherence dependence of the properties of an optical Airy beam. The use of a monochromatic laser to generate Bessel beams that propagate along curved trajectories is detailed in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 summarises the thesis and suggests future work.

O Laboratório do Acelerador Linear (LAL) do Instituto de Física da Universidade de São Paulo está construindo um acelerador de elétrons do tipo Mícrotron. O acelerador possui dois estágios de aceleração: o Mícrotron booster e o Mícrotron Principal. Atualmente, o sistema injetor do acelerador, que é um acelerador linear, dispõe de um feixe de elétrons de 1,9 MeV. Este feixe será inserido no primeiro estágio de aceleração, o Mícrotron booster, que já está construído e será testado em breve. Sua função é elevar a energia do feixe para 5 MeV. O objetivo deste trabalho é o de otimizar os parâmetros de operação do Mícrotron booster por meio de simulação. Também tivemos como objetivo estudar a viabilidade da adaptação do projeto original, com feixe de entrada de 1,765 MeV, para um feixe de entrada de 1,9 MeV. Tendo como foco principal encontrar a admitância do acelerador, foram desenvolvidas algumas rotinas de simulação. A admitância do Mícrotron booster para um feixe de 1,765 MeV foi calculada em 3,08 pi mm.mrad, 0,58 pi mm.mrad e 0,38 pi keV.rad para os espaços de fase horizontal, vertical e longitudinal, respectivamente. Para o feixe de 1,9 MeV, uma condição de aceleração foi encontrada e os valores de admitância foram 3,65 pi mm.mrad, 0,62 pi mm.mrad e 0,77 pi keV.rad para os mesmos espaços de fase. Dados de caracterizações do feixe, realizados em trabalhos anteriores foram utilizados para determinar a configuração das lentes quadrupolares responsáveis pela inserção do feixe no acelerador. Tais simulações darão suporte ao início de operação do Mícrotron booster, auxiliando na determinação dos parâmetros iniciais de operação e otimização dos parâmetros finais. / The Laboratório do Acelerador Linear is building a racetrack microtron electron accelerator. It has two acceleration stages: the booster and the main microtron. The injection system has already been commissioned and is delivering a 1.9-MeV continuous wave beam. This beam will be injected in the booster stage, which is ready to be commissioned, and should increase the energy to 5 MeV. The aim of this work is to optimize the operation parameters of the booster stage by means of simulation tools. We also studied the feasibility of injecting the 1.9 MeV beam in the booster, which has been designed to operate with a 1.765 MeV beam. Some simulation routines had to be developed in order to determine the admittance of the booster stage. For the 1.765 MeV beam the admittances were determined to be 3.08 pi mm.mrad, 0.58 pi mm.mrad, and 0.38 pi keV.rad for the transverse horizontal, transverse vertical, and longitudinal phase spaces, respectively. For the 1.9 MeV injection beam we were able to find a viable acceleration condition, with slightly better admittances: 3.65 pi mm.mrad, 0.62 pi mm.mrad, and 0.77 pi keV.rad, for the same phase spaces cited above. The injection beam has been characterized previously, and the available data were used, in the simulation codes, to match the transverse beam emittances of the injector to the transverse beam admittances of the booster. The phase space manipulations were accomplished by tuning a quadrupole triplet placed before the booster entrance. These simulations are intended as a supporting tool for the commissioning of the booster stage, helping the experimental determination of the working parameters and their optimization.

The propagation of light beams in inhomogeneous dielectric media is considered. The derivation begins with first principles and remains general enough to include off-axis asymmetric multimode input beams in tapered lenslike media with spatial variations of gain or loss. The tapering of lenslike media leads to a number of important applications. A parabolic taper is proposed as a model for a heated axially stretched fiber taper, and beams in such media are fully characterized. Other models are proposed by the concatenation of a parabola with other taper functions.

Le champ invariant de spin (ISF), et son évolution, informe en profondeur sur le comportement de la polarisation dans un accélérateur, permet de calculer la polarisation d'équilibre dans les accélérateurs d'éléctron, mais est également utile dans l'étude et la compréhension des machines protons. La luminosité croissante, le plus haute sensibilité des expériences et la prise en compte d'effet auparavant négligé rendent nécessaire l'amélioration de la précision du calcul de l'ISF. Le travail de cette thèse propose plusieurs méthodes de calcul numérique du Champ Invariant de Spin, basées sur l'intégration numérique de la trajectoire, permettant une précision accrue des effets de la dynamique orbitale sur la dynamique de spin, mais également de prendre en compte des effets souvent compliqués à étudier et habituellement négligés, comme la dynamique non linéaire, les effets faisceau-faisceau, etc. Ces effets n'ont pas été inclues, car l'élaboration des méthodes a demandé beaucoup de temps, mais ils sont une perspectives de recherche dans le domaine. L'algorithme intitulé stroboscopic averaging a été implémenté pour calculer l'ISF. Une implémentation "simple" conduit à des temps de calcul trop long pour être utile. Néanmoins, une implémentation "backward" permet de rendre le calcul de l'ISF en un point dépendant d'une unique trajectoire, et donc de paralèlliser le calcul. Il a été suggéré par ailleurs que le "spin tune" peut être calculé par analyse spectrale. Un algorithme a été implementé dans ce sens, et calcul la fréquence de précession du spin sur une trajéctoire donnée. Cette idée mène également à une méthode alternative de calcul de l'ISF. La combinaison de ces différentes méthodes permet une meilleure compréhension des effets en jeu dans la dynamique du spin. / Invariant Spin Field (ISF), and its evolution, gives an acute insight in the polarization behaviour of a polarized accelerator, allows to estimate the equilibrium polarization of electron accelerators, an is also useful in the design and understanding of proton machines. The increased luminosity of colliders, the higher precision of the experiments, the inclusion of previously neglected effects, marks a necessary step forward in ISF precision. The present thesis proposes different methods to compute Invariant Spin Field, based on particle tracking, allowing a better precision in the orbital dynamic effect on the spin dynamic, as well as the inclusion of effects complicated to study and usually neglected, such as non linear dynamic effects, Beam-Beam effect, etc. The inclusion of these different effects has not been done, because elaboration of new methods is quite demanding. This is a candidate for future research. We implemented the Stroboscopic Averaging algorithm to compute ISF. The "simple" implementation leads to a non-managable computing time, but the "backward" implementation solves the problem by making the computation of the ISF dependent on only one orbital trajectory, thus allowing a parallelisation of the algorithm. It has been suggested that the spin tune could be computed through a spectral analysis. We implemented an algorithm for this purpose, allowing us to compute the spin tune form the spin-orbit trajectory. Following these ideas, we also proposed new methods based on a prior knowledge of the spin tune, to compute ISF. Combining the different methods leads to a better understandings of the spin dynamic, as each method provides a different point of view.

O Laboratório do Acelerador Linear (LAL) do Instituto de Física da Universidade de São Paulo está construindo um acelerador de elétrons do tipo Mícrotron. O acelerador possui dois estágios de aceleração: o Mícrotron booster e o Mícrotron Principal. Atualmente, o sistema injetor do acelerador, que é um acelerador linear, dispõe de um feixe de elétrons de 1,9 MeV. Este feixe será inserido no primeiro estágio de aceleração, o Mícrotron booster, que já está construído e será testado em breve. Sua função é elevar a energia do feixe para 5 MeV. O objetivo deste trabalho é o de otimizar os parâmetros de operação do Mícrotron booster por meio de simulação. Também tivemos como objetivo estudar a viabilidade da adaptação do projeto original, com feixe de entrada de 1,765 MeV, para um feixe de entrada de 1,9 MeV. Tendo como foco principal encontrar a admitância do acelerador, foram desenvolvidas algumas rotinas de simulação. A admitância do Mícrotron booster para um feixe de 1,765 MeV foi calculada em 3,08 pi mm.mrad, 0,58 pi mm.mrad e 0,38 pi keV.rad para os espaços de fase horizontal, vertical e longitudinal, respectivamente. Para o feixe de 1,9 MeV, uma condição de aceleração foi encontrada e os valores de admitância foram 3,65 pi mm.mrad, 0,62 pi mm.mrad e 0,77 pi keV.rad para os mesmos espaços de fase. Dados de caracterizações do feixe, realizados em trabalhos anteriores foram utilizados para determinar a configuração das lentes quadrupolares responsáveis pela inserção do feixe no acelerador. Tais simulações darão suporte ao início de operação do Mícrotron booster, auxiliando na determinação dos parâmetros iniciais de operação e otimização dos parâmetros finais. / The Laboratório do Acelerador Linear is building a racetrack microtron electron accelerator. It has two acceleration stages: the booster and the main microtron. The injection system has already been commissioned and is delivering a 1.9-MeV continuous wave beam. This beam will be injected in the booster stage, which is ready to be commissioned, and should increase the energy to 5 MeV. The aim of this work is to optimize the operation parameters of the booster stage by means of simulation tools. We also studied the feasibility of injecting the 1.9 MeV beam in the booster, which has been designed to operate with a 1.765 MeV beam. Some simulation routines had to be developed in order to determine the admittance of the booster stage. For the 1.765 MeV beam the admittances were determined to be 3.08 pi mm.mrad, 0.58 pi mm.mrad, and 0.38 pi keV.rad for the transverse horizontal, transverse vertical, and longitudinal phase spaces, respectively. For the 1.9 MeV injection beam we were able to find a viable acceleration condition, with slightly better admittances: 3.65 pi mm.mrad, 0.62 pi mm.mrad, and 0.77 pi keV.rad, for the same phase spaces cited above. The injection beam has been characterized previously, and the available data were used, in the simulation codes, to match the transverse beam emittances of the injector to the transverse beam admittances of the booster. The phase space manipulations were accomplished by tuning a quadrupole triplet placed before the booster entrance. These simulations are intended as a supporting tool for the commissioning of the booster stage, helping the experimental determination of the working parameters and their optimization.

Photonic crystals, periodic dielectric structures that control photons in a similar way that atomic crystals control electrons, present opportunities for the unprecedented control of light. Photonic crystals display a wide gamut of properties, such as the photonic band gap, negative index of refraction, slow or stationary modes, and anomalous refraction and propagation effects. This thesis investigates the modeling, simulation, fabrication, and measurement of two-dimensional square lattice photonic crystals. An effective index model was developed to describe the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the media and applied to characterize the behavior of self-collimated beams to discern the effect of the photonic crystal on the evolution of the amplitude and phase of the propagating beam. Potential applications include optical interconnects and stand alone devices such as filters and lasers. Based on design parameters from the simulations, two dimensional photonic crystals were fabricated on amorphous and single crystal silicon-on-insulator substrates utilizing electron beam lithography and inductively coupled plasma etching. A unique etching process utilizing a combination of Cl2 and C4F6 gases was developed and characterized which displayed a vertical profile with a sidewall angle of under 1 degree from vertical and very smooth sidewalls for features as small as 150 nm. The high quality of the etching was the key to obtaining extremely low loss, low noise structures, making feasible the fabrication of large area photonic crystal devices that are necessary to measure propagation phenomena. Reflectivity measurements were used to directly observe the photonic band structure with excellent correlation with theory. A device was designed and fabricated which successfully verified the prediction of the simulations through measurements of the self-collimation effect across a broad range of infrared wavelengths. A solid foundation for the necessary components (simulation, modeling, design, fabrication, and measurement) of two-dimensional photonic crystal has been demonstrated. Elements from solid state physics, materials science, optics, and electromagnetics were incorporated to further the understanding of the mechanism of beam propagation in photonic crystals and illuminating the vast potential of research in periodic media.

Les études de la radioactivité bêta dans les milieux nucléaires permettent en partie de participer à la détermination d’un des paramètres qui décrit l'interaction faible (la constante de couplage vectoriel). Pour cela, de nombreuses mesures permettent déjà d’atteindre de grandes précisions sur ce paramètre pour un grand nombre de noyaux des transitions bêta super-permise. Cependant, pour le carbone 10, l'incertitude relative du rapport d'embranchement reste encore élevée par rapport aux autres noyaux pères avec une valeur de l’ordre de 0,13 %. Ceci est dû à l’énergie du photon émis par l’état 0+ du noyau fils qui est de 1021,6 keV, c’est-à-dire proche de l’énergie d’empilement de deux signaux de photons de 511 keV. En mai 2015, notre groupe a réalisé, à ISOLDE au CERN, une expérience afin de mesurer très précisément cette transition. Pour produire le carbone 10,nous avons réalisé des réactions nucléaires qui produisaient en grandes parties les noyaux d’intérêts mais aussi des contaminants de mêmes masses émetteurs de bêta+. Afin de réduire l’empilement, il aurait été nécessaire de mieux séparer les éléments ou d’estimer celui-ci à partir de données équivalentes avec le néon 19. Ainsi, nous avons calculé une constante d’empilement qui dépend du temps de mise en forme est qui est de l’ordre de 0,1μs. Par la suite, l’analyse de nos données carbone 10 a permis d’obtenir un rapport d’embranchement de 1,500(4) % alors que la moyenne des valeurs de la littérature donne1,4645(19) %. Dans le but de produire plus d’espèces de noyaux et d'augmenter l'intensité des faisceaux, le GANIL (Grand Accélérateur National d'Ions Lourds) développe actuellement un nouvel accélérateur ainsi qu'un ensemble de cibles basées sur la méthode ISOL. Pour réduire le dépôt de contaminants aux points de mesures, tel que c'était le cas pour la mesure du carbone 10 à ISOLDE, la communauté de physiciens souhaite aussi développer un ensemble d'outils de séparations. Dans ce cadre, notre groupe participe depuis 2011 au développement de deux de ces outils : un séparateur de haute-résolution (HRS) pour séparer des noyaux dont le pouvoir de résolution en masse nécessaire (m/Δm) souhaité est de 20000et un double piège de Penning (PIPERADE) pour séparer les noyaux qui nécessite au maximum d’un pouvoir de résolution en masse de 100000. Ainsi, au CENBG, une ligne faisceau de test qui comprend une source d'ions FEBIAD, le quadrupôle radiofréquence regroupeur-refroidisseur GPIB, un aiguillage électrostatique et le double piège de Penning (PIPERADE) est en cours de développement. Lors des tests de ces dispositifs, nous avons observé une efficacité de transmission de l’ordre de 80 % du faisceau qui traverse le GPIB.Également, nous avons mesuré une émittance transverse de 3 pi.mm.mrad en comparaison de celle de 26 pi.mm.mrad observées en aval du GPIB. Par la suite, les simulations de laligne d’injection dans le piège de Penning ont permis de définir une décélération qui permet d’injecter 98 % des ions extraits du GPIB.Cette thèse se compose donc de deux parties : la détermination du rapport d'embranchement du carbone 10 et le développement et l'intégration au CENBG de la ligne de faisceau PIPERADE. / The beta radioactivity studies in nuclear medium allow to participate in thedetermination of one of the parameters that describes the weak interaction (the vectorcoupling constant). For this purpose, numerous measurements have already been made todetermine this parameter with great precision for superallowed transition nuclei. However,for carbon 10, the relative uncertainty of the branching ratio is still high compared to otherparent nuclei with a value of the order of 0.13%. This high uncertainty is due to photonenergy emitted of 1021.6 keV which is really closed to the energy due to pile-up of twophotons of 511 keV. In May 2015, our group conducted an experiment at ISOLDE at CERN tomeasure the branching ratio very precisely. The nuclear reactions needed to produce thenuclei gave a large amount of nuclei of interest but also contaminants of the same massewhich also emit beta+ particles. A pile-up ratio of around 0.1 μs was calculated. Then, wefound a branching ratio of 1.500(4) % whereas the average from litterature is 1.4645(19) %.To study more species of nuclei and increase the intensity of the beams, GANIL(Grand Accélérateur National d’Ions Lourds) is currently developing a new accelerator as wellas a set of targets based on ISOL method. In order to reduce the contaminants deposit atthe measurement points, as we saw for the measurement of carbon 10 at ISOLDE, thecommunity of physicists also wants to develop separation apparati. In this context, since2011, our group has been involved in the development of two of these tools: a highresolutionseparator (HRS) to separate nuclei which need a mass resolving power (m / Δm)around 20,000 and a double Penning trap (PIPERADE) to separate the nuclei which require amaximum resolution of 100,000. Thus, at CENBG, a test beam line that includes a FEBIAD ionsource, a RFQ cooler-buncher (GPIB), an electrostatic switch, and a double Penning trap(PIPERADE) is under development. During apparati tests, we observe a transmissionefficiency around 80 %. Also, we measure a transverse emittance about 3 pi.mm.mrad whichis lower than 26 pi.mm.mrad observed before the GPIB. By the way, simulations of the beamline permitted to decelerate the beam and inject 98 % of ions.This thesis consists of two parts: the determination of the carbon 10 branching ratioand the development and integration of the PIPERADE beam line at CENBG.

This thesis discusses optoelectronic devices at mm-wave frequencies, focusing on optoelectronic beamforming and non-mechanical beam steering based on an optically excited Fresnel zone plate plasma. The optically controlled zone plate, termed the photo-injected Fresnel zone plate antenna (piFZPA) within this work, is introduced and a comprehensive theoretical framework developed. The design and optimisation of Fresnel zone plates are detailed, which determine the inherent performance of the piFZPA. A range of zone plates were designed, fabricated, and characterised at 94 GHz with up to 46 dBi gain, -26 dB sidelobe levels, and 67% aperture efficiency being measured for a quarter-wave design. The control of (sub) mm-wave beams by optical modulation of the complex permittivity of a semiconductor substrate is discussed. The significance of the free-carrier plasma dynamics, the effective lifetime, surface recombination, and the limits of the substrate which are imposed by the spatial resolution of the free-carrier plasma are highlighted, with the optimisation of these parameters discussed. The passivation quality of high-resistivity silicon wafers were characterised using a mm-wave photoconductance decay method, which yielded lifetime improvements from τ[subscript(eff)] = 60 us up to τ[subscript(eff)] ≈ 4,000 us, resulting in lowered recombination velocities (S = 15 cm/s). W-band characterisations of the passivated wafers illustrate the significance of surface recombination, with measured attenuations of up to 24 dB. Novel theoretical models are developed throughout this thesis, which yield insight into the requirements of optoelectronic devices, and are shown to agree well with measured data. The theoretical framework developed details the requirements, limitations, suitability, and design of piFZPAs at any frequency. A range of transmission-type piFZPAs are demonstrated and characterised at 94 GHz, both on-axis and off-axis, based on a novel architecture, with up to 8% aperture efficiency. Finally, the hybridisation of the piFZPA technique and well established visible display technologies, which has been developed throughout this thesis, enable low-cost, simple, and highly flexible optoelectronic devices, highlighting this method as an attractive solution to adaptive beamforming and non-mechanical steering at mm-wave and submm-wave frequencies.

This master´s thesis provides basic properties and measurement of optical beams. In the first chapter is shown division of light on ray, wave and beam optics. Atmospheric optics and properties associated with propagation of light through the earth's atmosphere is presented in the second chapter. In the third part are shown basic techniques for Gaussian beam shaping. The last chapter deals with measurement of optical beam after propagating through a turbulent medium. In this section is shown distribution of relative variance of optical intensity in Gaussian and Top-Hat beam. There is also measured spatial coherence of laser beam in the turbulent atmospheric transmission media. Finally effect of the beam wander is investigated.

Mit der Entdeckung des Higgs-Bosons hat ein Messprogramm begonnen, bei dem die Eigenschaften dieses neuen Teilchens mit der höchstmöglichen Präzision untersucht werden soll um die Gültigkeit des Standardmodells der Teilchenphysik zu prüfen und nach neuer Physik jenseits des Standardmodells zu suchen. Für dieses Ziel wird der Large Hadron Collider (LHC) und sein Upgrade, der High Luminosity-LHC bis etwa zum Jahr 2035 laufen und Daten produzieren. Um an der Spitze der Teilchenphysik zu bleiben, hat die “European Strategy Group for Particle Physics” empfohlen, ambitionierte Nachfolgeprojekte für die Zeit nach dem LHC zu entwickeln. Entsprechend dieser Empfehlung hat das CERN die “Future Circular Collider” (FCC) -Studie gestartet, die die Machbarkeit neuer Speicherringe für Teilchenkollisionen (Collider) untersucht. In dieser Arbeit wird die Entwicklung der Wechselwirkungszonen für FCC-hh, einem Proton-Proton-Speicherring mit einer Schwerpunktsenergie von 100 TeV und einem Umfang von 100 km, beschrieben. Die Wechselwirkungszone ist das Herzstück eines Colliders, da sie die erreichbare Luminosität bestimmt. Es ist daher entscheidend, schon früh im Entwicklungsprozess eine möglichst hohe Kollisionsrate anzustreben. Ausgehend von der optische Struktur der Wechselwirkungszonen des LHC und dem geplanten High Luminosity-LHC (HL-LHC) werden Strategien zur Skalierung hergeleitet um der höheren Strahlenergie gerecht zu werden. Bereits früh im Entwicklungsprozess wird die Strahlungsbelastung durch Teilchentrümmer vom Wechselwirkungspunkt als entscheidender Faktor für das Layout der Wechselwirkungszone identifiziert und eine allgemeine Design-Strategie, die den Schutz der supraleitenden Endfokussierungsmagnete mit einer hohen Luminosität verbindet, wird formuliert und implementiert. Aufgrund des deutlichen Spielraums in Bezug auf beta* wurde die resultierende Magnetstruktur zum Referenzdesign für das FCC-hh-Projekt. / The discovery of the Higgs boson is the start of a measurement program that aims to study the properties of this new particle with the highest possible precision in order to test the validity or the Standard Model of particle physics and to search for new physics beyond the Standard Model. For that purpose, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and its upgrade, the High Luminosity-LHC, will operate and produce data until 2035. Following the recommendations of the European Strategy Group for Particle Physics, CERN launched the Future Circular Collider (FCC) study to design large scale particle colliders for high energy physics research in the post-LHC era. This thesis presents the development of the interaction region for FCC-hh, a proton-proton collider operating at 100 TeV center-of-mass energy. The interaction region is the centerpiece of a collider as it determines the achievable luminosity. It is therefore crucial to aim for maximum production rates from the beginning of the design process. Starting from the lattices of LHC and its proposed upgrade, the High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC), scaling strategies are derived to account for the increased beam rigidity. After identifying energy deposition from debris of the collision events as a driving factor for the layout, a general design strategy is drafted and implemented, unifying protection of the superconducting final focus magnets from radiation with a high luminosity performance. The resulting FCC-hh lattice has significant margins to the performance goals in terms of beta*. Protecting the final focus magnets from radiation with thick shielding limits the minimum beta* and therefore the luminosity. An alternative strategy to increase the magnet lifetime by distributing the radiation load more evenly is developed. A proof of principle of this method, the so-called Q1 split, is provided. In order to demonstrate the feasibility of the derived interaction region lattices, first dynamic aperture studies are conducted.