Les biopiles enzymatiques, capables de convertir le glucose présent dans le fluide physiologique en électricité, sont une source d’alimentation pour les dispositifs implantables. Cependant, les faibles puissances délivrées ne permettent pas d’alimenter actuellement des organes artificiels implantables. Une nouvelle architecture de biocathode tirant profit des technologies d’impression a été testée en vue d’améliorer les performances des Biopiles implantables. Ce travail démontre la pertinence des procédés d’impression tels que le spray ultrasonique et l’héliogravure dans l’élaboration de biocathodes homogènes, fines et flexibles. Ainsi, des encres fonctionnelles, dont la formulation à base de nanotubes de carbone et de surfactant a été optimisée, ont pu être déposées sur un substrat flexible hydrophobe (feuilles de carbone). Les problèmes d’imprimabilité du substrat ont été surmontés et des couches actives flexibles ont été obtenues (épaisseur entre 5 et 10 µm). Enfin, une technique d’immobilisation non-covalente des laccases (via le pyrène adamantane) a été testée et un courant catalytique de l’ordre de 130 mA.cm-2 a été obtenu. / Enzymatic Biofuel Cells, capable of converting efficiently the glucose from extracellular fluid into electrical energy, are a power source for implantable devices. However, the power output generated by these cells is not sufficient to fulfill the energy required by implantable artificial organs. Therefore, a new packaging architecture design based on flexible materials derived from printing technologies has been explored in order to enhance the power output of this cell. This work demonstrates the relevance of printing processes such as ultrasonic spray and gravure to develop homogeneous, thin and flexible biocathodes. During this work, a carbon nanotubes / surfactant suspensions were deposited on a hydrophobic flexible substrate (carbon paper). Despite the poor printability of the substrate, flexible active layers were obtained (thickness between 5 and 10 µm). Finally, a non-covalent immobilization of laccases (via adamantane pyrene) was tested and a catalytic current of approximately 130 µA.cm-2 was obtained. mA.cm-2 was obtained.

A miniaturização de uma biocélula a combustível (BC) enzimática de glicose/O2 para aplicação em dispositivos bioeletrônicos implantáveis representa um grande desafio em eletroquímica moderna. Isso porque é preciso desenvolver bioeletrodos com alta atividade bioeletrocatalítica, com enzimas fortemente ligadas a superfície eletródica. Além disso, o próprio processo de micromanipulação é desafiador, uma vez que é desejável obter biocélulas miniaturizadas e com alta densidade de potência. Assim, propõe-se aqui o desenvolvimento de uma BC que atenda os requisitos supracitados. Para isso, desenvolveram-se bioânodos e biocátodos compostos por folhas de grafeno individuais modificadas com as enzimas glicose desidrogenase (GDh) e bilirrubina oxidase (BOx), respectivamente. Eletrodos de grafeno com área de 10-3 cm2 e espessura de 0,9 ± 0,2 nm foram utilizados em um microchip de Si/SiO2. Observou-se que o grafeno transferido para o microchip permanecia com contaminações de cobre, mesmo após a utilização dos métodos químicos tradicionais de remoção desse metal. A presença de cobre é decorrente do processo de fabricação do grafeno, neste caso, a deposição química em fase vapor (CVD). Para remover qualquer resíduo deste metal, submeteu-se o grafeno a um procedimento de remoção eletroquímica de cobre, denominada aqui como e-etching. Uma vez não observada qualquer corrente faradaica residual associada às impurezas, obtiveram-se os bioeletrodos com a GDh e a BOx. Para a imobilização enzimática, utilizou-se a ligação covalente via funcionalização com o ácido 4-aminobenzóico. As curvas de polarização de estado quase-estacionário obtidas com os bioeletrodos em tampão fosfato pH 7,0 revelaram correntes de onset para oxidação de glicose em -0,13 V e redução de oxigênio em 0,45 V. Por fim, os eletrodos foram utilizados em uma BC sem membrana, operando no microchip de Si/SiO2, em eletrólito tampão fosfato saturado com O2 e glicose 8,0 mmol L-1. A BC apresentou um potencial de circuito aberto em 0,55 V, com densidade de potência volumétrica igual a 1,7 W cm-3, o maior valor reportado até os dias de hoje para uma BC. / The miniaturization of a glucose/O2 enzymatic biofuel cell (BFC) for application in implantable bioelectronic devices is a challenge in electrochemistry. For this purpose, the necessity of bioelectrodes development with high biocatalytic activity such as enzymes strongly attached to electrode surfaces is a current trend. Moreover, the micromanipulation procedure itself is a challenge since the obtention of BFCs with high power density is desirable. Then, the present study shows the partial results obtained in the development of a glucose/O2 BFC with the characteristics exemplified. For the later, bioanodes and biocathodes were obtained with single graphene flakes modified with the enzymes glucose dehydrogenase (GDh) and bilirubin oxidase (BOx), respectively. Graphene flakes electrodes with area of about 10-3 cm2 and thickness of 0,9 ± 0,2 nm were used in a Si/SiO2 microchip. It was observed that transferred graphene to the microchip remained with copper/copper oxide contamination even after the use of conventional methodologies for the remotion of the metal from single graphene foils. The presence of the remaining copper is due to the fabrication process of graphene by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). For the remotion of remaining impurities from graphene, the electrochemical remotion of copper from graphene was carried out in acidic media by the so called e-etching procedure. Since no residual faradaic current was observed due to metal/metal oxide impurities in graphene electrodes, the bioelectrodes were obtained with the enzymes GDh and BOx. The covalent functionalisation of graphene with 4-aminobenzoic acid via diazonium coupling reaction was used for the enzymatic immobilization. The quasi-stationary polarization curves obtained with the bioelectrodes in phosphate buffer pH = 7,0 showed onset oxidation current for glucose at -0.13V and reduction of molecular oxygen starting at +0.45V. Finally, the bioelectrodes were used in a membraneless BFC operating in a Si/SiO2 microchip under saturated oxygen and glucose 8 mmol L-1 in the electrolyte media. The BFC showed an open circuit potential at 0.55V and volumetric power density of 1.7 W cm-3, the highest value reported for an enzymatic BFC so far.

La demande croissante de systèmes électrochimiques miniaturisés et potentiellement implantables tels que les biocapteurs, les biopiles à combustible et les batteries a conduit à l’émergence de nouvelles technologies pour surmonter les problèmes expérimentaux liés aux grandes dimensions, aux faibles densités de courant, et à la puissance de sortie insuffisante de ces dispositifs. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous présentons de nouvelles approches pour la fabrication d’électrodes miniaturisées avec des architectures macroporeuses et coaxiales dont les applications pourraient être dans les domaines cités plus haut. De plus, nous avons démontré l’utilisation de telles électrodes macroporeuses pour la conception de biopiles fonctionnant à base de glucose et d’oxygène. Les résultats préliminaires concernant la conception d'un nouveau type de biocapteurs de glucose à base de cellules vivantes sont également présentés. La première partie de ce travail se concentre sur différentes stratégies pour la fabrication de cristaux colloïdaux (chapitre 1) qui peuvent être utilisés pour la préparation d'électrodes macroporeuses (chapitre 2) en suivant l'approche dite de matrice sacrificielle dure. La synthèse d'électrodes macroporeuses est basée sur l’électrodéposition potentio statique de matériaux conducteurs (tels que les métaux dans le contexte de ce travail) dans une matrice colloïdale à base de silice qui a été synthétisée par le procédé de Langmuir-Blodgett. Cette méthode a été utilisée pour la conception et la fabrication de cellules électrochimiques à deux électrodes macroporeuses coaxiales et miniaturisées en suivant deux procédures différentes et complémentaires: 1. La première procédure de fabrication est basée sur l'électrodéposition de couches de métaux alternées or-nickel-or, avant la dissolution de la couche de nickel intermédiaire puis une stabilisation mécanique de la structure; 2. La seconde stratégie alternative et complémentaire pour la fabrication de cellules électrochimiques coaxiales et macroporeuses repose sur l'assemblage de l'architecture finale à partir de deux électrodes cylindriques macroporeuses préparées indépendamment et adressables par voie électrochimique. La principale différence entre ces deux approches est la gamme de l’espacement inter-électrode (de quelques dizaines de micromètres (première approche) à des centaines de micromètres qui peut être obtenu par le second procédé de fabrication). En outre,nous avons démontré le fonctionnement électrochimique des deux architectures d'électrodes par l'évaluation en voltampérométrie cyclique à balayage de la réaction de réduction de l'oxygène qui a lieu à la surface des deux électrodes.Le plus grand avantage des stratégies présentées est la possibilité de contrôler finement l'épaisseur de l'électrode (et donc des surfaces actives), la séparation spatiale entre l'électrode interne et externe (c’est-à-dire le volume d'électrolyte qui peut être stocké dans l’interstice) et la taille des pores (en changeant le diamètre des particules colloïdales de silice). Dans la partie suivante (chapitre 3), nous démontrons la possibilité d'utiliser des électrodes macroporeuses pour la fabrication d'une biocathode enzymatique. Les substrats d'or macroporeux ont été choisis comme candidats prometteurs pour améliorer les performances électrochimiques (courant et puissance de sortie) d'une biopile enzymatique à glucose/oxygène en raison de leur surface active élevée. [...] Enfin, notre contribution au développement d'un nouveau type de biocapteur à base de cellulesentières est décrite dans le chapitre 4. [...] / The increasing demand for miniaturized and eventually implantable electrochemicaltools such as biosensors, biofuel cells and batteries has led to the development of newtechnologies to overcome existing problems related to large dimensions, low current densities,and insufficient power output of such devices. In the present work we describe new approachesfor the fabrication of miniaturized, macroporous and coaxial electrode architectures that couldfind their practical application for the fabrication of the systems mentioned above.Furthermore, we have demonstrated the functionality of macroporous electrodes with respectto the design of miniaturized glucose/oxygen biofuel cells. Preliminary results regarding thedesign of a new type of whole-cell based glucose biosensors are also presented.The first part of this work is focusing on different strategies for the fabrication of colloidalcrystals (Chapter 1) that can be used for the synthesis of macroporous electrodes (Chapter2) byfollowing the so-called hard template approach. The synthesis of macroporous electrodes isbased on the potentiostatic electrodeposition of conductive materials (such as metals in thepresent work) into a silica based colloidal template that has been synthesized by the Langmuir-Blodgett procedure. This method has been used for the design and fabrication of miniaturizedcoaxial and macroporous two electrode-electrochemical cells by following two different andcomplementary procedures: 1. The first fabrication procedure is based on the electrodepositionof alternating gold-nickel-gold metal layers, subsequent etching of the intermediate nickel layerand a structural stabilization; 2. The second alternative and complementary strategy for thefabrication of coaxial and macroporous double electrochemical cells relies on assembling thefinal architecture from two independently prepared and electrochemically addressablecylindrical macroporous electrodes. The main difference between these two approaches is therange of inter-electrode distances (from tens of micrometers (first approach) to hundreds ofmicrometers that can be achieved by second fabrication procedure). Also, we demonstrate theelectrochemical functionality of both electrode architectures by cyclo-voltammetricinvestigation of the oxygen reduction reaction that takes place at the surface of bothelectrodes.The biggest advantage of the presented strategies is the possibility to fine tune the electrodethickness (and therefore active surface areas), the spatial separation between inner and outerelectrode (the volume of electrolyte that can be stored between them) and the pore size (bychanging the diameter of silica colloidal particles).In the following segment (Chapter 3), we demonstrate the possibility to use macroporouselectrodes for the fabrication of an enzymatic biocathode. The macroporous gold substrateswere chosen as promising candidates to improve the electrochemical performances (currentand power output) of an enzymatic glucose/oxygen biofuel cells due to their high active surface area. [...] Finally, our contribution to the development of a new type of whole cell based biosensor isdescribed in Chapter 4. [...]