Brown algae have been the focus of metal ecotoxicology research for over 60 years, mainly because of their high metal accumulation capacity and reputed resistance. Now that Ectocarpus siliculosus has been positioned as a model for the study of brown algae, and that the genome has been recently sequenced and annotated, new lines of research have been made possible on these ecologically and economically important organisms, including the field of ecotoxicology. Several strains of E. siliculosus have been collected and isolated from locations around the world, thus providing the opportunity to study inter-population differences in their responses to environmental stress. This investigation can be split into three main sections. In the first part Cu exposure experiments were carried out under laboratory conditions using three strains of E. siliculosus: Es524 from a Cu polluted location in Chile, REP10-11 from a metal polluted (including Cu) location in England and LIA4A from a pristine site in Scotland. Strains were exposed for 10 d to concentrations ranging between 0 and 2.4 μM Cu. We measured different parameters: relative growth rates; metal accumulation (extracellular and intracellular); phytochelatins and the expression of related enzymes; oxidative stress responses as manifested in lipid peroxidation and levels of H2O2, and levels of pigments; levels of antioxidants glutathione and ascorbate (in reduced and oxidised forms), and phenolic compounds; and the activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidise. Strain Es524 was the most efficient in counteracting the effects of Cu stress as manifested by a combination of Cu exclusion production of metal chelators, upregulation of oxidative enzymes, and strong antioxidant metabolism. REP10-11 also showed effective Cu defences, especially related to glutathione-ascorbate interactions. LIA4A was the least tolerant strain, with metabolic defences significantly less effective against Cu exposure. In part two a novel transplantation experiment was developed to compare responses in the field with those obtained in the laboratory. The study was carried out at a metal polluted and a low-impacted site in central Chile using strain Es524 (as in the laboratory experiments) and Es147, isolated from a low metal-polluted site in Chile. From the biomass, we conducted similar measurements of Reactive Oxygen Metabolism (ROM) as for the laboratory experiments described in the first part. In agreement with the laboratory experiments, strain Es524 displayed a higher resistance to metal stress. Because they behaved similarly between strains, the best suggested biomarker candidates for future assessments are metal accumulation, glutathione and ascorbate in reduced and oxidised forms, phenolic compounds, and the activity of superoxide dismutase. The method is simple, widely applicable in temperate environments, cost-effective, and provides a reliable representation of metal bioavailability in the environment. In the final part of the study a novel technique for the co-extraction of RNA and DNA, using a high pH Tris-HCl buffer, from small amounts of biomass of different strains of E. siliculosus was successfully developed. The extraction of nucleic acids from brown algae is considered to be difficult and the product is of poor quality due to the high concentrations of interfering secondary metabolites such as phenolics and polysaccharides. The protocol devised here provided high yields of pure RNA and DNA that are suitable for molecular analyses. This investigation provides new insights on metal stress metabolism in brown algae, and demonstrates that metal resistance is dependent on inherited defences developed over a long history of exposure. Furthermore, the good agreement between the results obtained in the laboratory with those from the field study confirms that the responses expressed under controlled laboratory conditions are representative of stress metabolism of E. siliculosus under natural conditions.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Dragonflies (Insecta: Odonata) are a valuable tool for assessing aquatic systems and have been used as indicators of ecological health, ecological integrity, and environmental change, including climatic change. In four separate studies I explored the usefulness of dragonflies as surrogates in biomonitoring, site prioritization and indication of global climate change. In the use of dragonflies for biomonitoring, I field-tested a freshwater ecological integrity index, the Dragonfly Biotic Index (DBI), based on dragonfly assemblages at the local scale, and compared the DBI to a standard freshwater benthic macroinvertebrate-based freshwater health index. Overall, dragonflies were more sensitive to changes in river condition than were macroinvertebrates, and the DBI site value and macroinvertebrate scores were highly significantly correlated. I conclude that dragonfly assemblages in the form of a DBI are an excellent tool for environmental assessment and monitoring freshwater biodiversity, with the potential to replace benthic macroinvertebrate-based freshwater quality assessments. In the second study, I used the DBI to prioritize sites for conservation action in South Africa. Using a selected set of top prioritized sites, I compared the DBI’s performance to that of a rarity-complementarity algorithm. Site prioritization using the DBI reveals that CFR sites protect Red Listed taxa rather well. The rarity-complementarity algorithm represents all species, but without greater emphasis on the rare and threatened species. I conclude that the DBI is of great value in selecting biodiversity hotspots, while the algorithm is useful for selecting complementarity hotspots. The third study was made possible by the recent completion of a continental assessment of freshwater biodiversity, which revealed that patterns of richness and threat of four well-studied aquatic taxa largely coincide at the continental scale. Using only dragonflies, I built a protected areas network for Africa using spatial planning software. I then compared the performance of the existing African reserve network and that of known global biodiversity hotspots against the model, and identified sites of conservation concern. Although the current reserve network covers 10.7% of the landscape, the proportional representation of species geographic distributions in reserves is only 1.1%. The reserve network is therefore inefficient, and many areas of conservation priority that are not formally protected remain. The advantage of operating at the fine scale, while covering a large geographic area is that it shifts the focus from the large-scale hotspots to smaller priority areas within and beyond hotspots. In the fourth study, I created species distribution models of dragonflies in an El Niño-prone biodiversity hotspot in South Africa, and predicted the changes in species richness, geographic range and habitat suitability, forty and eighty years from now. According to the model results of two different emissions scenarios, at least three species will be lost from the area by 2050, and four by 2080. The remaining species are predicted to persist with reduced geographical ranges, at generally higher elevations. Most species presented here thrive quite well in artificial environments, that is, engineered ponds or dams. It is therefore unlikely that loss in connectivity will play a role for these species. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Naaldekokers (Insecta:Odonata) is waardevolle instrumente om akwatiese sisteme te assesseer, en is al gebruik as aanwysers van ekologiese gesondheid, ekologiese integriteit en omgewingsverandering, insluitend klimaatsverandering. In vier studies het ek die nut van naaldekokers as surrogate in biomonitering, area prioritisering en indikasie van globale klimaatsverandering ondersoek. In die benutting van naaldekokers in biomonitering, het ek ´n varswater ekologiese integriteits indeks, die Dragonfly Biotic Index (DBI), wat gebaseer is op naaldekokergemeenskappe op die plaaslike skaal, getoets en dit vergelyk met ´n standaard bentiese makroinvertebraat-gebaseerde varswater gesondheids index. Naaldekokers was meer sensitief vir veranderinge in riviertoestand as makroinvertebrate, en die DBI lokaliteit waarde en makroinvertebraat telling was beduidend gekorreleer. Die gevolgtrekking was dat naaldekoker gemeenskappe in die vorm van die DBI ‘n uitstekende instrument is vir omgewings assessering en die monitering van varswater biodiversiteit, met die potensiaal om bentiese makroinvertebraat-gebaseerde varswaterkwaliteit assessering te vervang. In die tweede studie, het ek die DBI gebruik om areas te prioritiseer vir bewaringsaksie in Suid Afrika. Met die gebruik van ‘n geselekteerde set top prioriteit areas, het ek die DBI se prestasie vergelyk met die van ‘n rariteit-komplemetariteit algoritme. Area prioritisering met die gebruik van die DBI het aangedui dat CFR areas taxa op die Rooi Lys goed beskerm. Die rariteit-komplementariteit algoritme verteenwoordig alle spesies, maar beklemtoon minder skaars en bedreigde spesies. Die gevolgtrekking was dat die DBI van meer waarde is in die selektering van biodiversiteits ‘hotspots‘, terwyl die algoritme nuttig is vir die selektering van komplementariteits ‘hotspots‘. Die derde studie was moontlik gemaak deur die onlangse voltooiing van ‘n kontinentale assessering van varswater biodiversiteit, wat aangedui het dat patrone van rykheid en bedreiging van vier goed-bestudeerde akwatiese taxa grootliks ooreenstem op die kontinentale skaal. Met die gebruik van naaldekokers, het ek ‘n beskermde area netwerk gebou vir Afrika met ruimtelike beplannings sagteware. Ek het die prestasie van die bestaande Afrika reservaatnetwerk en die van bekende globale biodiversiteit ‘hotspots‘ vergelyk teen die model, en het areas van bewaringsbelang geidentifiseer. Alhoewel die bestaande reservaatnetwerk 10.7% van die landskap dek, is die proporsionele verteenwoordiging van spesies se geografiese verspreiding net 1.1%. Die reservaatnetwerk is dus onvoldoende en baie areas van bewaringsbelang is nie formeel beskerm nie. Die voordeel van op die fyn skaal werk terwyl ‘n groot geografiese are gedek word, is dat dit die fokus van groot skaal ‘hotspots‘ na kleiner prioriteits areas binne en buite ‘hotspots‘ verskuif. In die vierde studie, het ek spesies verspreidingsmodelle van naaldekokers geskep in ‘n El Nino-geneigde biodiversiteits ‘hotspot’ in Suid Afrika, en het veranderinge in spesies rykheid, geografiese verspreiding en habitatsgeskiktheid voorspel, veertig en tagtig jaar van nou af. Volgens die modelresultate van twee verskillende emissie scenarios, sal ten minste drie spesies verlore gaan uit die area teen 2050, en vier teen 2080. Daar word voorspel dat die oorblywende spesies sal voortduur in verkleinde geografiese areas, by groter hoogte bo seespieël. Die meeste spesies hier verteenwoordig floreer in kunsmatige omgewings, soos mensgemaakte damme. Dit is dus onwaarskynlik dat ‘n verlies in konnektiwiteit ‘n rol sal speel vir hierdie spesies.

Introdução: Atribui-se à poluição atmosférica aproximadamente 800 mil mortes prematuras anualmente ao redor do mundo, sendo que diversos estudos têm mostrado que mesmo quando as emissões dos poluentes estiveram em conformidade com os padrões estabelecidos, mudanças dos níveis de poluição em curtos períodos, sazonalmente, ou em longo prazo produziram efeitos nocivos sobre a saúde das populações expostas. Dentre estas populações, idosos e crianças foram os mais sensíveis a esses efeitos. Vitória é uma cidade industrial que tem enfrentado um aumento da sua frota automotiva e, conseqüentemente, um aumento das concentrações dos poluentes atmosféricos. O presente trabalho comparou a prevalência de sintomas respiratórios em escolares expostos predominantemente aos poluentes atmosféricos emitidos por indústrias e por veículos automotores. Casuística e Métodos: Estudo transversal, exploratório, em uma amostra de 350 crianças em duas escolas localizadas em áreas com diferentes fontes predominantes de poluição atmosférica (industrial e automotiva). As fontes predominantes de poluição atmosférica em cada área foram identificadas através da análise de componentes principais, tendo como base os componentes químicos identificados em folhas de Tradescantia pallida expostas através da técnica de fluorescência de Raio-X. Foi aplicado o questionário International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) para investigar os sintomas respiratórios. Outros sintomas e condições de moradia foram avaliados através de um questionário complementar. A associação entre a freqüência dos sintomas entre as áreas foi investigada através do teste de Qui-quadrado. Modelos de regressão logística foram usados para os cálculos das razões de chances prevalentes (OR). Resultados: Não houve associação significativa nas prevalências dos sintomas pesquisados entre as áreas investigadas. Em relação às morbidades referidas, rinite mostrou uma associação significativa com local de moradia próxima à área industrial, OR= 2 (IC95%: 1,1; 3,7). Embora não tenham sido encontradas associações, asma, tosse e coriza também foram mais freqüentes nas crianças moradoras na área industrial. Conclusão: Os resultados encontrados na cidade de Vitória sugerem que o risco de exposição às emissões industriais pode ser maior que o da emissão por fontes automotivas / Introduction: Almost 800 thousand premature deaths have been attributed to the air pollution around the world, and several studies have showed that even when the established patterns for pollutants emissions were achieved, short and seasonal changes in the pollutant levels, or long term changes may lead to a different harmful health effects on the exposed population. The elderly and children have been identified the most susceptible groups in terms of air pollution health effects. Vitória is a seaboard Brazilian industrial city, which has faced an increase in the automotive fleet in the last decade, and, consequently, air pollution levels. Casuistic and methods: This study compared the prevalence of respiratory symptoms in school children exposed, mainly, to industrial or automotive sources. We carried out a cross sectional study with 350 children of two schools located in different areas. The main source of air pollution in each area was assessed by factor analysis based on components identified in Tradescantia pallid leafs through fluorescence x-ray technique. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) questionnaire was applied to investigate respiratory symptoms. Referred respiratory morbidity was also investigated. Associations between areas and frequency of symptoms were tested with the chi-square test. Logistic regression models were used to calculate the prevalent odds ratio (OR) of the main respiratory symptoms. Results: There was no significant association between area and prevalence of respiratory symptoms. In terms of referred disease, rhinitis was associated with living in the industrial area, OR= 2 (CI95%:1.1; 3.7). Although without significant statistical association, asthma, cough and flue were also more frequent among those living in the industrial area. Conclusion: Despite the increase of automotive contribution to the pool of air pollutants in the city of Vitória, our results suggest that, in this specific situation, being exposed to industrial emissions may be more hazardous than being exposed to automotive emissions

A poluição atmosférica tem sido tema frequente de pesquisas, devido aos efeitos que podem afetar a saúde dos seres vivos, o meio ambiente e clima. A fim de identificar as fontes de emissão dos poluentes e de seus efeitos, o método de biomonitoramento vem sendo estudado devido ao seu baixo custo e a possibilidade de amostragem em amplas áreas geográficas. Neste trabalho, para biomonitoramento passivo da poluição atmosférica no campus da Cidade Universitária Armando Salles de Oliveira (CUASO) da Universidade de São Paulo, foi utilizado líquen epifítico da espécie Canoparmelia texana. Os liquens coletados em troncos de árvores de diferentes pontos da CUASO foram limpos, secos por liofilização e moídos para análise pelos métodos de espectrometria de fluorescência de raios X (XRFS) e análise por ativação neutrônica (NAA). Na XRFS as amostras preparadas na forma de pastilhas foram analisadas para determinação de As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Rb, S, Sr e Zn. Na NAA, alíquotas de amostras de liquens juntamente com padrões sintéticos de elementos foram irradiados no reator IEA-R1 e as atividades induzidas medidas em espectrômetro de raios gama para determinação de As, Br, Ca, Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, K, La, Mg, Mn, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, U, V e Zn. A qualidade dos resultados analíticos foi avaliada pela análise de materiais de referência certificados. Seus resultados de desvios padrão relativos e de erros relativos foram inferiores a 15 % para a maioria dos elementos. Os valores de diferença padronizada ou En score obtidos foram inferiores a |1| indicando resultados satisfatórios. A homogeneidade da amostra de líquen foi avaliada tanto pela NAA como pela XRFS por meio das análises em replicatas e estes resultados indicaram a boa reprodutibilidade dos resultados em relação aos elementos determinados. Os resultados dos liquens da CUASO mostraram que as concentrações médias de As, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Rb, Sb, Se e U foram mais altas do que daquelas das regiões consideradas não poluídas e para Fe, K, La, S, V e Zn foram da mesma ordem de grandeza. O estudo da correlação entre os elementos apresentou alta correlação (r > 0,7) para elementos originários de fontes naturais e antrópicas. A análise de componentes principais (PCA) aplicada aos resultados teve seis componentes principais, onde os componentes 1 e 2 corresponderam a 52,9 % da variância dos dados. Os resultados dos fatores de enriquecimento (FE) calculados entre os liquens da CUASO e de uma região considerada limpa foram maiores que 1 para maioria dos elementos, indicando que estes elementos podem ser de fontes antrópicas. Pelos resultados obtidos concluise que a origem dos elementos determinados nos liquens da CUASO pode ser atribuída a fontes como a resuspensão de partículas de solo e emissões antrópicas. / Air pollution has been a frequent topic of research, due to the effects that it can cause on the health of living organisms, environment and climate. In order to identify pollution sources and their effects, biomonitoring has been studied due to its low cost and possibility of sampling in wide geographic areas. In this study for passive biomonitoring of air pollution levels at the Cidade Universitária Armando Salles de Oliveira (CUASO), University of São Paulo campus, epiphytic lichens of Canoparmelia texana species were used. The lichens collected from tree barks at different sampling sites in the CUASO were cleaned, freeze-dried and ground for analyses. Lichen samples were analyzed by X - ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRFS) and neutron activation analysis (NAA). For XRFS, cylindrical pellets of samples were prepared to determine As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Rb, S, Sr and Zn. For NAA, lichen sample aliquots along with synthetic elemental standards were irradiated both for short and long periods at the IEA-R1 nuclear research reactor. The induced activities were measured by a gamma ray spectrometer to determine As, Br, Ca Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, K, La, Mg, Mn, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, U, V and Zn. The precision and accuracy of the results were evaluated by the analysis of certified reference materials (MRCs). Their results of relative errors and standard deviations were below 15% for most of the elements. The standardized difference or En score values were lower than |1| indicating satisfactory results. Replicate analyses of a lichen sample by XRFS and NAA, indicated good homogeneity of the sample for the elements determined. The lichen results showed that the mean concentrations of As, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Rb, Sb, Se and U were higher in samples from CUASO than those from regions considered unpolluted. For Fe, K, La, S, V and Zn, they were of the same order of magnitude. The correlation study between the elements showed high correlation (r > 0.7) for elements originated from the natural and anthropogenic sources. The principal component analysis (PCA) applied to the results showed six major components, where components 1 and 2 accounted for 52.9 % of the variance of the data. Enrichment factors (EF) calculated for the results of lichens from CUASO and a region considered unpolluted were EF> 1 for most elements, showing that these elements may be from anthropogenic sources. From the results obtained in this study can be concluded that the elements found in lichens from CUASO can be originated from sources such as resuspension of soil particles and anthropogenic emissions.

Introdução: Atribui-se à poluição atmosférica aproximadamente 800 mil mortes prematuras anualmente ao redor do mundo, sendo que diversos estudos têm mostrado que mesmo quando as emissões dos poluentes estiveram em conformidade com os padrões estabelecidos, mudanças dos níveis de poluição em curtos períodos, sazonalmente, ou em longo prazo produziram efeitos nocivos sobre a saúde das populações expostas. Dentre estas populações, idosos e crianças foram os mais sensíveis a esses efeitos. Vitória é uma cidade industrial que tem enfrentado um aumento da sua frota automotiva e, conseqüentemente, um aumento das concentrações dos poluentes atmosféricos. O presente trabalho comparou a prevalência de sintomas respiratórios em escolares expostos predominantemente aos poluentes atmosféricos emitidos por indústrias e por veículos automotores. Casuística e Métodos: Estudo transversal, exploratório, em uma amostra de 350 crianças em duas escolas localizadas em áreas com diferentes fontes predominantes de poluição atmosférica (industrial e automotiva). As fontes predominantes de poluição atmosférica em cada área foram identificadas através da análise de componentes principais, tendo como base os componentes químicos identificados em folhas de Tradescantia pallida expostas através da técnica de fluorescência de Raio-X. Foi aplicado o questionário International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) para investigar os sintomas respiratórios. Outros sintomas e condições de moradia foram avaliados através de um questionário complementar. A associação entre a freqüência dos sintomas entre as áreas foi investigada através do teste de Qui-quadrado. Modelos de regressão logística foram usados para os cálculos das razões de chances prevalentes (OR). Resultados: Não houve associação significativa nas prevalências dos sintomas pesquisados entre as áreas investigadas. Em relação às morbidades referidas, rinite mostrou uma associação significativa com local de moradia próxima à área industrial, OR= 2 (IC95%: 1,1; 3,7). Embora não tenham sido encontradas associações, asma, tosse e coriza também foram mais freqüentes nas crianças moradoras na área industrial. Conclusão: Os resultados encontrados na cidade de Vitória sugerem que o risco de exposição às emissões industriais pode ser maior que o da emissão por fontes automotivas / Introduction: Almost 800 thousand premature deaths have been attributed to the air pollution around the world, and several studies have showed that even when the established patterns for pollutants emissions were achieved, short and seasonal changes in the pollutant levels, or long term changes may lead to a different harmful health effects on the exposed population. The elderly and children have been identified the most susceptible groups in terms of air pollution health effects. Vitória is a seaboard Brazilian industrial city, which has faced an increase in the automotive fleet in the last decade, and, consequently, air pollution levels. Casuistic and methods: This study compared the prevalence of respiratory symptoms in school children exposed, mainly, to industrial or automotive sources. We carried out a cross sectional study with 350 children of two schools located in different areas. The main source of air pollution in each area was assessed by factor analysis based on components identified in Tradescantia pallid leafs through fluorescence x-ray technique. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) questionnaire was applied to investigate respiratory symptoms. Referred respiratory morbidity was also investigated. Associations between areas and frequency of symptoms were tested with the chi-square test. Logistic regression models were used to calculate the prevalent odds ratio (OR) of the main respiratory symptoms. Results: There was no significant association between area and prevalence of respiratory symptoms. In terms of referred disease, rhinitis was associated with living in the industrial area, OR= 2 (CI95%:1.1; 3.7). Although without significant statistical association, asthma, cough and flue were also more frequent among those living in the industrial area. Conclusion: Despite the increase of automotive contribution to the pool of air pollutants in the city of Vitória, our results suggest that, in this specific situation, being exposed to industrial emissions may be more hazardous than being exposed to automotive emissions

A poluição atmosférica tem sido tema frequente de pesquisas, devido aos efeitos que podem afetar a saúde dos seres vivos, o meio ambiente e clima. A fim de identificar as fontes de emissão dos poluentes e de seus efeitos, o método de biomonitoramento vem sendo estudado devido ao seu baixo custo e a possibilidade de amostragem em amplas áreas geográficas. Neste trabalho, para biomonitoramento passivo da poluição atmosférica no campus da Cidade Universitária Armando Salles de Oliveira (CUASO) da Universidade de São Paulo, foi utilizado líquen epifítico da espécie Canoparmelia texana. Os liquens coletados em troncos de árvores de diferentes pontos da CUASO foram limpos, secos por liofilização e moídos para análise pelos métodos de espectrometria de fluorescência de raios X (XRFS) e análise por ativação neutrônica (NAA). Na XRFS as amostras preparadas na forma de pastilhas foram analisadas para determinação de As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Rb, S, Sr e Zn. Na NAA, alíquotas de amostras de liquens juntamente com padrões sintéticos de elementos foram irradiados no reator IEA-R1 e as atividades induzidas medidas em espectrômetro de raios gama para determinação de As, Br, Ca, Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, K, La, Mg, Mn, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, U, V e Zn. A qualidade dos resultados analíticos foi avaliada pela análise de materiais de referência certificados. Seus resultados de desvios padrão relativos e de erros relativos foram inferiores a 15 % para a maioria dos elementos. Os valores de diferença padronizada ou En score obtidos foram inferiores a |1| indicando resultados satisfatórios. A homogeneidade da amostra de líquen foi avaliada tanto pela NAA como pela XRFS por meio das análises em replicatas e estes resultados indicaram a boa reprodutibilidade dos resultados em relação aos elementos determinados. Os resultados dos liquens da CUASO mostraram que as concentrações médias de As, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Rb, Sb, Se e U foram mais altas do que daquelas das regiões consideradas não poluídas e para Fe, K, La, S, V e Zn foram da mesma ordem de grandeza. O estudo da correlação entre os elementos apresentou alta correlação (r > 0,7) para elementos originários de fontes naturais e antrópicas. A análise de componentes principais (PCA) aplicada aos resultados teve seis componentes principais, onde os componentes 1 e 2 corresponderam a 52,9 % da variância dos dados. Os resultados dos fatores de enriquecimento (FE) calculados entre os liquens da CUASO e de uma região considerada limpa foram maiores que 1 para maioria dos elementos, indicando que estes elementos podem ser de fontes antrópicas. Pelos resultados obtidos concluise que a origem dos elementos determinados nos liquens da CUASO pode ser atribuída a fontes como a resuspensão de partículas de solo e emissões antrópicas. / Air pollution has been a frequent topic of research, due to the effects that it can cause on the health of living organisms, environment and climate. In order to identify pollution sources and their effects, biomonitoring has been studied due to its low cost and possibility of sampling in wide geographic areas. In this study for passive biomonitoring of air pollution levels at the Cidade Universitária Armando Salles de Oliveira (CUASO), University of São Paulo campus, epiphytic lichens of Canoparmelia texana species were used. The lichens collected from tree barks at different sampling sites in the CUASO were cleaned, freeze-dried and ground for analyses. Lichen samples were analyzed by X - ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRFS) and neutron activation analysis (NAA). For XRFS, cylindrical pellets of samples were prepared to determine As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Rb, S, Sr and Zn. For NAA, lichen sample aliquots along with synthetic elemental standards were irradiated both for short and long periods at the IEA-R1 nuclear research reactor. The induced activities were measured by a gamma ray spectrometer to determine As, Br, Ca Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, K, La, Mg, Mn, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, U, V and Zn. The precision and accuracy of the results were evaluated by the analysis of certified reference materials (MRCs). Their results of relative errors and standard deviations were below 15% for most of the elements. The standardized difference or En score values were lower than |1| indicating satisfactory results. Replicate analyses of a lichen sample by XRFS and NAA, indicated good homogeneity of the sample for the elements determined. The lichen results showed that the mean concentrations of As, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Rb, Sb, Se and U were higher in samples from CUASO than those from regions considered unpolluted. For Fe, K, La, S, V and Zn, they were of the same order of magnitude. The correlation study between the elements showed high correlation (r > 0.7) for elements originated from the natural and anthropogenic sources. The principal component analysis (PCA) applied to the results showed six major components, where components 1 and 2 accounted for 52.9 % of the variance of the data. Enrichment factors (EF) calculated for the results of lichens from CUASO and a region considered unpolluted were EF> 1 for most elements, showing that these elements may be from anthropogenic sources. From the results obtained in this study can be concluded that the elements found in lichens from CUASO can be originated from sources such as resuspension of soil particles and anthropogenic emissions.

This study is the first attempt to investigate heavy metal concentrations in the soldier crab with a view to it being a potential candidate for the monitoring of copper(Cu), zinc(Zn), nickel(Ni), lead(Pb) and cadmium(Cd) levels on the western coast of Taiwan. The objectives of this investigation included the following: (1) to assess the pollution status at different sites by determining the metal concentrations of ambient water and Pacific oysters; (2) to monitor the concentrations of heavy metals, including Cu, Zn, Ni, Pb and Cd, in the soldier crab; (3) to assess the effect of sex, wet weight and reproductive season at different sites¡F(4) to investigate the distribution of metal concentration among carapace, gonads, midgut gland, muscle; and (5). to assess the pollution status at different sites and years by monitoring the concentration of heavy metals, including Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd in male soldier crabs The Pacific oyster and stream results proved that site B is contaminated by Cu, Zn and Pb from streams B-1 and B-2. The highest Cu, Zn, Ni and Pb concentrations in soldier crabs appeared at site B, and significant differences in the accumulated concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn and Ni in soldier crabs were found between the sites tested. The highest bioconcentration factors of Cu, Zn, Ni and Pb in soldier crabs appeared at site B, indicating that the soldier crab can accumulate Cu, Zn and Pb to the same degree as the Pacific oyster. In fact, soldier crabs can accumulate more Ni than Pacific oysters, better reflecting the conditions of the ambient environment. These phenomena, as well as the fact that the soldier crab is able to accumulate relatively high levels of Cu, Zn, Pb and Ni, suggest that this crab is a potential biomonitor of Pb and Ni pollution in aquatic ecosystems. Only in the case at site A of Pb sex related difference could be detected. In general mean Pb level in male soldier crabs were higher than in female. There are no significant sex related differences of Cu, Zn, Cd and Ni in soldier crab among three sites. The lead mean concentration in reproduction season and pre- reproduction season were higher than non-reproduction seasons. The highest concentrations of lead were found in carapace and the gonad in reproduction season. The results presented that the metal concentration in soldier crabs vary significantly not only because of season change in polluted sites, but also it may be influenced by the sex-related and size-related difference of organisms. After eliminating size effect, sex effect by analyzing 0.7 g~ 1.0 g and male soldier crabs to monitor the pollution status, the Cu and Zn concentrations in soldier crabs along the Changhua coastline(site A and site B) is stable¡F The higher concentrations of Pb and Cd in soldier crabs existed in 2002 and 2003. We suggested that the polluted sources of Pb and Cd along the Changhua coastline in 2002 is abundant, and of Pb contents from 2003 to 2006 and Cd content from 2003 to 2007 are decreasing. Therefore, it is essential to take size effect, sex, season, and polluted status into account in comparative biomonitoring studies using soldier crabs as metals biomonitor. The baseline concentration of soldier crabs were 21.4 £gg g-1 wet wt. Cu, 20.1 £gg g-1 wet wt. Zn, 0.13 £gg g-1 wet wt. Pb, 0.12 £gg g-1 wet wt. and 0.91 £gg g-1 wet wt..

The explosive growth of the biosensors and health-related wearable monitoring devices has accentuated the need for miniaturized, high-efficiency conformal bio-modules that can operate over a wide range of frequencies, while they can be integrated in wearable and lightweight configurations. One of the major issue for the implementation of Wireless Body Area Networks (WBAN) is the very limited range of commonly used metal antennas. Due to the high dielectric constant between the metal antenna material (as well as the metal-based circuitry) and the mostly "ionized-water" human body parts, the near-field gets significantly disturbed, while local reflections due to the dielectric mismatch further shorten the operation range. Even wearable bracelet-like sensing devices have a very low range due to this reason. Thus, there are two major aspects that are going to be addressed in this Thesis: enhanced-range wearable antennas for wireless biosensors and compact "rugged-polarization" wireless sensor readers.

Zugl.: Göttingen, Univ., Diss., 2009

Coastal metal pollution is a major concern to the health and well-being of aquatic organisms. Bioindicator organisms such as mussels have the potential to monitor coastal metal pollution. In New Zealand, the feasibility of employing green-lipped mussels, Perna canaliculus as a bioindicator species is yet to be investigated. This thesis focuses on applying a suite of biomarkers on green-lipped mussels exposed to cadmium (Cd) to evaluate the utility of the biomarkers and investigate the utility of the mussels in assessment of metal pollution. Cd is a non-essential metal and is known to be highly toxic to many aquatic organisms. This research consisted of a laboratory study to understand the mechanistic effects of Cd toxicity in green-lipped mussels. Physiological, biochemical, immunocytotoxic and cytogenotoxic biomarker responses were measured in mussels exposed to acute (96 h; 2000 µg L⁻¹ and 4000 µg L⁻¹) and subchronic (28 d; 200 µg L⁻¹ and 2000 µg L⁻¹) Cd treatments. The 96 h LC₅₀ value for P. canaliculus was 8160 µg L⁻¹, indicating that the green-lipped mussels were relatively tolerant to Cd exposure. Results from the Cd exposures, indicated that Cd had a negative impact on physiological processes such as feeding and oxygen consumption. Cd-induced physiological impairments caused an imbalance between energy gain and energy loss in the mussels that led to negative scope for growth. Detoxification (metallothionein-like protein) and defence mechanisms (catalase) were induced in the mussels to provide protection against the toxic effects of Cd. However, the defence mechanisms were not sufficient to protect the mussels from damage due to lipid peroxidation. DNA damage was also observed in the haemocytes of mussels as a result of Cd exposure. Cellular homeostasis (alkaline phosphatase) mechanisms were also perturbed. The immunocytotoxic endpoints reflected differences in haemocyte proportions in the haemolymph of Cd-exposed mussels. Exposure to Cd also led to the formation of several nuclear aberrations in the gill cells of mussels. Overall the laboratory study highlighted toxic effects of Cd on green-lipped mussels that were dependent on the dose and/or the duration of exposure to Cd. Among the biomarkers tested, clearance rate, metallothionein-like protein induction and the formation of nuclear aberrations in mussel gill cells correlated strongly to Cd accumulation levels and reflected Cd exposure effects. The feasibility of employing green-lipped mussels as bioindicators was tested during the field study. Green-lipped mussels were collected from different coastal sites along the South Island in NZ. Metal concentrations in the sediment and in four different mussel tissues were analysed. The findings indicated a significant geographical difference in metal concentration in the environment and in the metal accumulation levels in the mussels. Overall, the field study indicated that the green-lipped mussel, Perna canaliculus has the potential to be used as a bioindicator species for assessment of coastal metal pollution levels in NZ.