A study of the Slocan Series of South Eastern British Columbia along the three related paths of Lithology, Biology and Tectonics is made. The Lithotopes studied are mainly microscopic, though some megascopic characters are used to determine bottom conditions. The microscopic work was done on slides made from specimens taken at random on a cross-section of these sediments from near Zincton B.C. along the valleys of Seaton and Carpenter Creeks, to New Denver, B.C. The specimens indicated an increase of grain size and feldspar content from the bottom of the section towards the top. This is correlated with an increase in sediment supply and rate of subsidence. The fossils found by Cairnes show that these sediments were laid down in marine waters. A study of lithologic assemblages and types leads to some hypotheses. These, taken with a study of the Windermere geosynclinal assemblage, and theoretical considerations based on the orogenic cycle, allow a history of the area to be made. This history indicates that the Slocan Series, while the result of a separate downwarp of the crust, is probably part of the complex Purcell-Windermere geosynclinal sequence. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

This study reviews the historical background of Mothers' Allowances in British Columbia. The main emphasis, however, has been on the present organization of this programme and how it serves the client. The programme has been in operation in British Columbia since 1920, and has served numerous families throughout the years without an evaluation being made to determine how it was serving the public. This study, therefore, analyzes various aspects of this programme and seeks to appraise its place in the welfare field. The historical background of the programme was covered by examining reports, articles and specific books written on the subject. A number of persons were also interviewed. Material relating to Mothers' Allowances, as this programme is administered at present, was obtained through interviews, reports and articles. For illustrative material, a number of mothers' allowances cases and others were studied. The review of the Mothers' Allowances Programme reveals a number of weaknesses. (1) The eligibility regulations which are too rigid, exclude too many needy families. (2) Judged by reasonable standards for long term maintenance, the allowances granted to families are almost universally inadequate. (3) No help is given to clients to meet their housing needs. As a result, many families are forced to live in crowded and inadequate quarters. (4) Mothers’ Allowances cases get less casework service than persons on Social Assistance. (5) The authority for granting allowances to clients should be more decentralized. The Mothers' Allowances provide a measure of assistance to families which they would not otherwise have. It is comparable to Social Assistance in this regard, but the study reveals that, if the Mothers' Allowances Programme is to continue, the Act and its regulations have to be amended and made equal to or better than the Social Assistance requirements. There is a need for the Federal Government to assist financially in this field. If development followed the lines of the Social Security Report by Dr. L. C. Marsh, the Mothers' Allowances programmes in Canada could be repealed, since widows in need would be covered by Survivors' Insurance. Mothers with children not covered by Survivors' Insurance would be assisted by a reformed system of social assistance. The recommendation of the present study is that the Mothers' Allowances Programme in British Columbia, if not improved considerably, should be abolished in favour of social assistance for all those in need. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

This study is concerned with the problem of obtaining maintenance payments from putative fathers for the support of children born out of wedlock. The essential material is derived from a group of cases chosen to compare the methods of maintenance collections which have evolved in practice under the Children of Unmarried Parents Act, namely, affiliation orders, agreements, and lump-sum settlements. Analysis of a group of affiliation-order cases shows that the necessity of court action to prove paternity and make an affiliation order for maintenance is evidence of a maladjustment in the social situation. Agreements are a desirable method for the support of a child over a sixteen-year period, provided it is judged that the putative father is willing to share responsibility for the care of the child over a long-term period. On the other hand, the experience of lump-sum settlements suggests that they have several advantages. When these cases are properly handled, the unmarried father may be relieved of his obligation, particularly if he has legitimate family responsibilities; this solution assures the child a definite sum of money and breaks emotional ties of the kind which may be often upsetting to the girl and prejudicial to the putative father. The question arises as to how children born out of wedlock will be supported if orders, agreements, and settlements are not always satisfactory methods. An invariable situation is that putative fathers tend to have comparatively low incomes so that they provide only small regular payments; also settlements may not be sufficiently large enough to be acceptable to the unmarried mother. Relevant cases show that it is destructive to make an affiliation order or an agreement against a putative father when he is unable to pay because of unemployment or unwillingness; moreover, it is also destructive to make an order or an agreement for an amount beyond his financial and emotional ability to pay. The study suggests, in these cases: Social Allowance for the unmarried mother and the child, or a fund to supplement the mother's earnings and to bridge the periods when the man is unable to pay. Social work must play an important role in adequate treatment of unmarried parent cases. Putative fathers should be treated as individuals who require the skill of case workers in order to solve their conflicts involved in providing maintenance. The study points up the need for more professional personnel who are capable of handling unmarried parent cases,— also a need for a much broader perspective on the whole program. Hopefully this thesis may clarify the newer philosophy that forcing maintenance collections from putative fathers affords little protection to children born out of wedlock. It is through case work and understanding that a putative father will willingly share responsibility with the unmarried mother in the protection and care of the child. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

The purpose of this study is threefold: (1) to analyze information available in the records regarding the manifestations of behaviour disorders in the children and the background of the parents, (2) to make a tentative diagnosis of the relationships of the parents to their children, and (3) to examine the degree of correlation existing between the parents' attitudes and the child manifesting the behaviour problem. This is, therefore, an exploratory study on the familiar topic of parental attitudes and how they affect the behaviour of children. The selection of cases for study (40 in number) were all those accepted for treatment by the Provincial Child Guidance Clinic in an 18 month period, 1948-49. The children were either of pre-school age or their problems manifested themselves before they entered school. Certain limitations were set up. All the children were of at least normal intelligence, all came from homes where there was a normal family constellation, i.e., both parents were alive and living at home. No distinction was made between sexes, ordinal position of the child in the family, religion and nationality, and economic status. These cases were classified into three groups on the basis of "problems" of symptoms of maladjustment which led the parents to seek the services of the Provincial Child Guidance Clinic. The classification adopted distinguished (1) disturbances of social adaptation, (2) habit disorders, and (3) personality disorders. The emphasis of this study is based on the hypothesis that parental attitudes influence the behaviour of children. It seemed logical, therefore, to focus specific attention on attitudes reflected and expressed by the parent in the case work situation. The sample of cases included parents exhibiting rejecting, dominating and other deviant attitudes. — The greatest number of children in this group of clinical cases were those who were affected by the combined attitudes of mother and father. The deviant trait was the predominating parental inadequacy contributing to the behaviour problem. Next in importance were the attitudes expressed by the mothers, rejection being the outstanding trait. Fathers, on the whole, affected a smaller number of children than the mothers. In this group domination was the main contributing defect. Regardless of the adequacy of one parent, if the other parent failed to fulfil the parental role, the failings were reflected in the behaviour of the child. Though parental attitudes influenced the behaviour of all the children, different children reacted differently and in varying degrees to similar experiences. The behaviour manifestation appeared to show itself in a manner peculiar to the make-up of the particular child. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

This study was designed for the purpose of learning from the families, who are receiving assistance, what dependency means to them. The sample was selected from the Mothers' Allowance and Social Assistance categories. A group of twelve families comprised the sample that was used for intensive study. The families were interviewed personally by the writer to study their status prior to the onset of dependency, and specifically their experiences and status during their dependency years, with emphasis on the meaning of case work services to the families. The families' experiences and status point up the fact, that the maximum standard of living to be achieved within the policies of the agency is unusually low: the assistance payments are too small for a family to be able to maintain or achieve a standard of living providing for a "reasonably normal and healthy existence"; policy concerning treatment of other income and resources, appears to be sufficiently restrictive to prevent the families from making successful use of them to improve their standard of living; and finally, the professional case worker's role to help the families develop their own strengths, and make full use of other (community) resources is invalidated to a large degree, through the agency's rules and regulations concerning treatment of such income and resources. The case worker's role as a helping person to the families appeared to be especially significant during the early stages of the families' dependency status. The follow-up service, or sustaining case work treatment, is largely concerned with, verification of continued eligibility for financial assistance, only in terms represented by the maximum provided for in the social allowance scale. The implications of the study are, that the agency's policies, in terms of the families experiences, might warrant some revision to the extent that the professional case worker can function in his intended role as a helping person to the family. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

The accompanying thesis, written as part of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Social Work, and entitled "COMMUNITY CENTRES AND THEIR SUPPORT - A Study of British Columbia" is primarily concerned in showing how community centres can be supported, realizing that support is more than financial. Based, for its practical aspects, on a survey of community centres in British Columbia, it discusses the characteristics of community centres, defines their particular functions, and indicates possible support. The historic origins of community centres are considered, and the conditions which have contributed to the development of community centres are outlined. The concept is accepted that a community centre is a movement enabling a feeling of unity and democratic, expression for the community rather than the concept that a community centre is restricted to a building or program. The particular functions of community centres are defined as providing facilities, offering a variety of activities, and arranging the co-operative organization of all or several groups. Governmental or tax-provided support is advocated in providing facilities while both governmental and voluntary support are proposed in providing activities and developing a co-operative organization. Other guides or principles are evolved which can be of assistance in the development of community centres in British Columbia. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

A study of mammals on the Goose Island, British Columbia, was conducted in the summer of 1948. This group of islands represents a well isolated unit typical of many outer fringe islands along the coast. Over and above the qualitative examinations of the fauna, studies were undertaken to obtain some quantitative information upon the ecological distribution of terrestrial mammals. The terrestrial mammalian fauna was represented by three species of small mammals, Peromyscus maniculatus. Microtua longicaudus and Sorex obscurus. Two species of bats also occurred, Lasionycteris noctivagans and Myotis yumanensis. A species of Castor once inhibited the islands. Based on a snap trap procedure the relative abundance of Peromyscus, Microtus and Sorex was determined in four habitats occupied by all three species. The floral composition of these habitats was determined and reasons for the observed distributions postulated. The extent and nature of eight additional habitats have been included as well as notes on pelagic mammals, Myotis, Lasionycteris and Castor. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

This thesis examines public welfare administration in British Columbia. An historical review reveals the beginnings of the present administration as a number of "bits and pieces" of welfare legislation which were gradually co-ordinated over a period of fifty years. The present operations of the administration are examined in general, but focus is taken particularly on headquarters relationships with field units or regions. These are discussed and evaluated in the light of current administrative principles and against the background of difficult terrain and isolated regions common to the province. Delegations of authority from headquarters to the field receive special attention. The greater part of the material for the thesis was obtained by direct interview with provincial officials. With considerable reference to theory the information was then subjected to critical analysis. It was found that the public welfare organization had achieved: (a) A unified administration of technically good design, (b) A plan for headquarters field-relationship suitable to provincial terrain, (c) A partial implementation of the plan. Several unsolved problems prevented fuller use of the plan: (a) Lack of agreement among all elements of the administration regarding the decentralization. (b) Scarcity of personnel professionally trained in social work. (c) Cumbersome provincial-municipal relationships in regard to public welfare. These problems point to still existing needs: (a) A redefinition of administrative objectives acceptable to all elements. (b) A greater supply of professionally trained personnel. (c) Increased standards of treatment and supervision in the field. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

Like most young colonies, British Columbia in 1858 was economically undeveloped. Nevertheless, the colony possessed a valuable natural resource in its public lands which might be sold to raise additional revenue, or given to immigrants in place of financial aid. Unfortunately, geography limited the immediate value of the Grown Lands and made settlement extraordinarily difficult. While attempting to define a successful land-settlement policy for British Columbia, the government could not ignore the instructions from Great Britain that the colony was to become self-supporting as soon as possible. Sales of land were therefore expected to be an important source of revenue. Unfortunately, the unstable mining population cared little for farming. The indifference of the miners and the inability of the government to confine the mining population within the limits of surveyed land brought about a gradual reduction in the price of land. Although it was originally intended that the Wakefield system should be applied to British Columbia, the proximity of the United States made the adoption of the pre-emption system inevitable. While intended as a temporary measure the pre-emption system was adopted in 1860 and remained on the statute books throughout the colonial period. The question of free grants of land was widely discussed in British Columbia during the colonial period after the passage of the Homestead Act of 1862 in the United States. However, the lack of surveyed land resulting from the financial and geographical problems of the colony made its adoption impossible. The pre-emption system was therefore the main feature of the colony’s land-settlement policy from 1858 until Confederation. New Westminster was the only district on the mainland in which country land was sold at auction. In that district, by 1868, of the 83,440 acres of surveyed land offered for sale, 27,797 acres had been bought. Of this amount not more than 250 acres had been brought under cultivation. By 1868 a total of 1696 pre-emption claims had been recorded of which 6000 acres had been brought under cultivation. Throughout the colonial period agriculture remained secondary to mining and it is probable that the discoveries of gold had much more influence upon farming than the actual land-settlement policy of the government. The best justification for the pre-emption system is the fact that it allowed settlers in the vicinity of the mines and beyond the limits of surveyed land to produce for the local market. Although the absence of a free-grant system was blamed by some for the slow growth of settlement, they failed to discern that settlers who pre-empted in many parts of the colony enjoyed the benefits of a free grant. For, since the government was financially unable to survey their land, no payment was required. Yet to make agriculture a parmanent and substantial industry, some confidence in the prosperity of the colony, such as that promised by Confederation with its guarantee of railway connections, was needed to support the pre-emption system. Farmers in the upper country were the chief support of the colony in the depression of 1867. On the other hand the lower Fraser Valley was still dependent upon imported food; for in that district uncertainty as to the future of the colony had hindered the investment of capital which was needed to clear and drain the land, In addition to a pre-emption claim the settler in British Columbia, after 1865, was entitled to a pastoral lease. Although no uniform policy was adopted in granting these leases, the average lease ran for a period of five years at the rate of 4¢ an acre. The fine quality of the bunch grass in the interior of the colony coupled with the government regulations concerning its use resulted in a decrease in the list of imported meat. That the colony had to import meat at all can be blamed not upon the system of pastoral leases adopted by the Government but rather upon the ever-present difficulties of transportation. It was impossible to drive cattle down the Cariboo Road to the lower mainland markets because of the dangerous route and scarcity of food. During the colonial period the revenue gained from the sale of surveyed land and town lots was insignificant compared with that received from custom duties and road tolls. In the year 1870, it contributed only a little more than one-fortieth of the total revenue of the colony. After 1871 Confederation and the promise of a railway diverted the colonial government's point of view from the land policy of the United States to that of the Canadian Government. In 1873 British Columbia adopted the rectangular system of surveying as used by the Dominion Government in Manitoba. In the following year it adopted a system of free grants similar to that contained in the Dominion Lands Act of 1872. Although nothing could have been more liberal- than the free-grant system provided for by the Land Act of 1874, its influence upon the settlement of the province in the period under consideration was negligible. In other words the charge often made during the colonial period that the absence of a free grant system hindered the settlement of the colony was erroneous. The rapid settlement of the province in those early years was beyond the unaided power of any land-settlement policy. The transcontinental railway was badly needed to overcome the isolation of the Pacific province. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

This thesis is a study of the care of the mentally ill in British Columbia from the early days of the pioneers to the present time. It is hoped that this study will be of value to those charged with the care of the unfortunate persons among us who suffer from some form of mental illness. It is also hoped that this work will help to clear up some of the misconceptions surrounding the whole topic of mental hygiene. The study begins in the early years of the nineteenth century. The so-called insane were at first sent to an asylum in California but later were placed in the gaol in Victoria. Later the Royal Hospital in that city was used to house them up until the first asylum was built in New Westminster. After the turn of the century many new ideas regarding the care of the mentally ill began to spread throughout the civilized world, and had a profound affect on the administration of the mental hospitals in British Columbia. After World War I psychiatry developed very rapidly and scientific treatment began to replace simple custodial care in the mental hospitals. The findings of a survey made by the Canadian National committee for Mental Hygiene in 1919 and the recommendations of a Royal Commission in 1927 greatly influenced the government in providing better facilities throughout the province. The first social worker came to hospital at Essondale in 1932, and later that year the Child Guidance Clinic was opened. It has done excellent work but it has been successful in helping only the children who need urgent attention. Shock therapy is used extensively at Essondale and the results have been very encouraging. Other modern forms of therapy are used including organized recreation, handicrafts, and cosmetherapy. Neither psychoanalysis nor group psychotherapy is practised at the hospital. There has been a gradual development in British Columbia from simple custodial care to modern treatment procedures. In spite of present day knowledge, however, the mentally ill in this province are not getting the full benefit of all the techniques for curing them. Overcrowding has always been, and still is, a major problem. Lack of trained personnel, of adequate methods of after-care, of satisfactory preventive services are all problems which need more attention. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate