Planners for British Columbia's aging population are beginning to contemplate the difficult problem of ensuring the future adequacy of supportive programs for the elderly in the key areas of health, income, and housing. It now appears that these programs may well be squeezed between increased demand resulting from a rapid rise projected in the number and proportion of older people early in the next century, and lower rates of provincial and national growth foreseen by most economists. This descriptive study draws on available relevant information (much of it included in tables, figures, and appendices) to explore the problem from its origins in previous policy development to the situation at the present time. From this perspective the implications of current demographic, economic, and political/bureaucratic trends for programs for the elderly are assessed in both the national and international contexts. After a consideration of the roles of philosophy and ideology in social theory, a wide range of social gerontological theories are examined using a sociological scheme which classifies them according to four major paradigms in order to determine their abilities to describe accurately the information presented, and to prescribe useful policy alternatives. It is concluded that a theoretical approach which advocates radical change from a structural perspective is both most valid and most productive as a paradigm for planning for the aging population. A description of the relationship of planning to social change, and a systems analysis of the process of public policy making together introduce a discussion of strategies based upon the selected planning paradigm. Once the approaches used in planning for the elderly in the past are critically reviewed, the outline of a radical structural plan for the aging population is described, and then a strategy for its implementation over the next two or three decades is presented. The report concludes with a brief summary, and a number of specific recommendations for action by the appropriate public authorities, including several suggestions for enhancing the capacity for policy and program research in this field. One important recommendation is for the early establishment in British Columbia of an inter-departmental agency on aging to co-ordinate information and planning for the province's elderly. / Medicine, Faculty of / Population and Public Health (SPPH), School of / Graduate

Groundwater is a major source of potable water in British Columbia and is used extensively in many areas of the province. However, despite the importance of the resource, groundwater development and use are subject to few constraints. Reliance on common law rights has contributed to the development of problems of overuse and contamination of the resource in some parts of British Columbia. The objectives of the thesis are to provide an overview study of groundwater and to develop a set of recommendations for improving the management of groundwater in British Columbia. Most of the information used in the thesis is from primary and secondary written material in the fields of law, economics, hydrogeology, and natural resources management. Some primary written and verbal material was obtained from the British Columbia Ministry of Environment staff. Several groundwater management and regulation schemes which have been recommended in the literature or adopted in other regions of western North America are reviewed and then assessed according to the criteria of feasibility, equity, effectiveness, and economic efficiency. The evaluation of these alternatives forms the basis of the recommendations for management of British Columbia's groundwater. The thesis recommends that, in areas where groundwater problems have developed or are likely to occur, clearly defined groundwater rights be established by the Comptroller of Water Rights. The Comptroller would conduct hearings into groundwater supply and demand, decide upon a collective withdrawal rate for each area, and then assign rights to individual users to pump water at specified rates. The thesis further recommends that, once the allocation of rights has been made, the rights would be marketable. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Patterns of in-stream summer transport of total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) and total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) in a high gradient second order stream in southwestern British Columbia were described. Some biological, physical, and chemical processes were also identified and evaluated with respect to their role in regulating in-stream transport of TDN and TDP. Fifteen water sampling stations were established along an alternating series of open clearcut and densely forest covered drainage areas, each several hundred metres in length. These drainage sections represented young and midsuccessional ecosystems. The furthest upstream section (which was forest covered) and an adjacent downstream open clearcut section each had weirs which were used for comparisons of TDN and TDP export between the successionally different systems. Export of TDN was consistently lower from the clearcut section than from the upstream forested section. This indicated that there was consistent in-stream absorption of TDN within the clearcut section. Nitrate flux dominated the absorption of TDN. A pairing analysis of precutting nitrate export data from 1972 with post-treatment export data from 1979 indicated that the absorption of nitrate was due to increased solar radiation reaching the stream channel. It was proposed that the increased light inputs which provided an additional energy input to the stream ecosystem, increased nitrate spiralling rates. Without disruptive stormflow events the net effect was a retention of nitrate within the stream. Concentrations of TDP were often less than detectable limits so comparisons of P export could not be made. The TDN data suggested that if nutrient absorption in small watershed streams is widespread, nutrient retention on land may have been overestimated in past small watershed nutrient budget studies. A further analysis of downstream flux in element concentrations was conducted for all forms of TDN and TDP using three-dimensional images (distance downstream x time x element concentration) from data collected in summer 1979. Nitrate concentrations consistently declined in open sections but increased in densely forest covered sections. Trends in ammonium concentrations were difficult to detect. Orthophosphate levels were rarely greater than the detectable limit of 3 ug/1 in all sections. Dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) and dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) flux was highly variable with no apparent trend. Nutrient spiralling processes were proposed to explain the flux of each of these forms of TDN and TDP. An enrichment experiment conducted in a clearcut section of the study stream in mid-summer indicated that rates of disappearance of N0₃⁻-N, NH₄⁺-N, and HP0₄⁻²-P from solution were directly related to element concentrations in solution and that relationship could be expressed as fourth, first, and third degree polynomials respectively. Disappearance rates of the three ions were in the order NH₄⁺-N> HP0₄⁻²--P> N0₃⁻-N. Reasons for the differences in disappearance rates between elements and element forms were proposed. The first end-of-summer storm event produced a 20-fold increase in stream discharge at peak flow over summer base flow. This resulted in a 10-fold increase in N0₃⁻-N concentrations in all stream sections. The increased loading was attributed to flushing of N0₃⁻-N from land. Stream power was not destructive, however, and N0₃⁻-N removed from solution increased over that during summer base flow. The increased uptake rates were attributed to an increase in active nutrient processing areas of the stream substrate. DON and DOP concentrations and export increased during the storm but NH₄⁺-N and HPO₄⁻²-P concentrations did not change. Again, detailed explanations for this element behaviour were proposed. Results of an enrichment experiment designed to evaluate the role of periphyton in regulation of nutrient transport were insufficient to fully assess the quantitative role of periphyton. Hypotheses were proposed, however, to further evaluate the role of periphyton using alternative methods. Concluding hypotheses were presented to aid in the development of future research plans. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

The objective was to design and evaluate a Suspension oyster tray unit to optimize conditions necessary for successful commercial culture of oysters in British Columbia for the half-shell market. The suspension system was tested against MacNicol and Nestier trays presently used by the industry. Units were located in two sites in Trevenen Bay. One location was sheltered and calm; the other a natural tidal raceway with intense current flow. The purpose was to test the ability of the design to provide more uniform growth, retard fouling, be easily handled and be commercially feasible to construct. Assessing tray performance was based on monitoring shell growth, condition index, fouling occurrence, materials handling and the capital costs of the systems. Field-experimentation began in June and terminated in October, 1979. The Nestier unit had the best shell growth in the calm environment but displayed variation in growth among trays in the stack, suffered retarded growth in the tidal raceway and had significant barnacle accumulation. The MacNicol performed on par with the Suspension system except for variations in growth due to vertical position, the accumulation of mussels and lowered performance at the tidal raceway site. Suspension tray units performed similarily at both sites, exhibited less variation in growth among trays in a stack, retarded fouling and proved the most economically feasible system for commercial use. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Chemical and Biological Engineering, Department of / Graduate

Regulation of land through zoning is inherently controversial as it involves individual rights and freedoms often in conflict with public goals and policy. To ensure the general rules of regulation are not dispensed in an arbitrary and capricious manner, thereby causing undue or unnecessary hardship in specific cases, the zoning board of variance has been established. This board is a quasi-judicial lay tribunal statutorially limited to resolving issues concerning individual cases of hardship, administrative misjudgment or errors of interpretation related to zoning matters. In recent years concern has been expressed over whether or not the board of variance can appropriately respond to appeals of administrative decisions which are the product of an increasingly dynamic and complex zoning and development process dependent on the discretionally judgment of professional planning staff. Correspondingly, concern has also been expressed that procedures established by these lay boards only inadequately provide for the rights of the individual. The purpose of this thesis is to document and evaluate the decision-making procedures established by the board of variance. It is hypothesized that the board system of zoning administration, as exemplified by the operation of the existing Vancouver Board of Variance, enables maximization of public benefits accruable through the exercise of discretionally zoning techniques while adequately meeting the equity requirements of a quasi-judicial appeal body. To test this hypothesis, the evolution of zoning in Canada and the United States of America was reviewed and two case study models of zoning administration, the Vancouver Board of Variance and the Seattle Hearing Examiner, introduced. Examination of their history and operation identified several administrative problems with these systems. With this background, a model with eight normative criteria of administration was established using selected socio-political and judicial elements of our society. The two case study systems were then compared with the theoretical model and the hypothesis disproved. It was concluded the Vancouver Board of Variance displayed shortcomings resulting from the local zoning process, the lack of required qualifications for Board members, and the informal procedures of the Board. It was further concluded the Seattle Hearing Examiner system, while better meeting the normative criteria, could not be adopted to the Vancouver administrative setting. It was then suggested the Vancouver Board of Variance could be modified so as to better meet the criteria of the normative model, thereby rectifying the identified shortcomings. A set of recommendations pertaining to these shortcomings was- presented and a method of implementation suggested. These recommendations included: a) eliminating those appeals concerning the use of either land or structures from the Board's jurisdiction; b) permitting the Planning Department to issue variances in certain cases; c) modifying the public hearing requirement from mandatory to discretionary in certain circumstances; d) creating a citizens' advisory committee to provide a policy overview of variance decisions for City Council; e) permitting wider judicial review of individual variance appeals by incorporating policy statements under the protection of the "Official Development Plan"; f) requiring Board members have qualifications; g) limiting the term of membership to the Board and requiring attendance of meetings; h) requiring the Chairman of the Board have a legal background, a judicial temperament and be appointed jointly by the Province and the City; i) modifying the procedures and operation of the Board so that: (i) the appeal form indicates grounds for appeal and advises of requirements for any subsequent judicial appeal, (ii) public notice is given all appeals and provision is made to involve local groups, (iii) an information pamphlet on the Board is published, (iv) information can be exchanged prior to the hearing, (v) the powers of the Chairman are specified, (vi) ex parte communication is limited, and (vii) upon request, reasons in writing are given for decisions of the Board. It was concluded the recommendations would result in the significant improvement of Board of Variance by: a) returning policy decisions to the legislature, b) expediting the handling of variance appeals, c) increasing the accountability of the Board to the legislature and the judiciary, d) re-establishing membership qualifications for Board members, and e) establishing procedures to ensure the Board conducted its deliberations with fairness, clarity and openness, free from political interference. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

During the years 1900-50 about fifty non-Catholic private boys' schools existed in British Columbia. Most were small private ventures, a few large incorporations. Some survived only a few years, five endure to the present day. Virtually all the schools were premised on the principles and practices of private education in Britain. Three factors coalesced to bring these schools into being. British Columbia possessed from the mid-nineteenth century a heritage of private education. While acquiescing in the necessity for common schooling for the mass of the population, some families continued to educate their own offspring privately in the province, in Britain, or elsewhere in Canada. The second circumstance behind the creation of boys' schools in British Columbia was the tremendous popularity in late-Victorian Britain of a form of class-based private education particularly amenable to replication, the "public" school and its counterpart for younger boys, the preparatory school. Thirdly, British Columbia society fundamentally altered as a consequence of the national immigration policy initiated in 1896. Over the three decades 1891-1921, about 175,000 British immigrants settled in the province, including upwards to 24,000 of suitable social background to have been supporters of private education. Boys' schools on the British model were founded by enterprising .British immigrants primarily to educate the offspring of fellow settlers. However, schools' clientele gradually extended to encompass established British Columbia families of high socio-economic status. Such families were themselves responsible for the incorporation in Vancouver in the early 1930s of the province's last major boys' school, now its largest. The significance of British Columbia's boys' schools extends beyond their clientele, which did not much surpass 7,500 over the years 1900-50. Families supporting private education were already a distinctive element in the society. Educating offspring apart from vast bulk of their contemporaries helped perpetuate that separate identity from generation to generation. Socio-economic divisions in the society were in effect consolidated and maintained from the top down. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

Significant numbers of Canadians in the 1960s believed their society and their schools required substantial change. A few, believing the public school system was authoritarian, competitive, unimaginative, and unlikely to change, set out to establish their own schools. In British Columbia, like-minded parents, educators, and even high school students founded over twenty alternative schools in the 1960s and early 1970s in the Lower Mainland, Vancouver Island, and the West Kootenays. Most of these people nourished idealistic world views comprising elements of pacifism, socialism, or spiritual mysticism. They claimed to be motivated by a sense of social and democratic responsibility, and also put a high value on personal freedom and the possibility of public and private transformation. Until the 1960s British Columbia independent schools had been organized chiefly on religious, ethnic, or class grounds. However, founders of alternative schools in the early 1960s typically followed a Progressive approach, emphasizing a "child-centred" curriculum based on the ideas of John Dewey. Later in the decade alternative schools took up the Romantic or "free school" ideas of A.S. Neill, and allowed young people almost complete freedom to organize their own educational activities (or none at all), and to be responsible for their own behaviour. They were influenced by the American Progressive and English Romantic educational traditions as well as Canadian social democracy, the American counterculture of the late 1960s, and the Human Potential Movement. By the early 1970s, alternative schools became "therapeutic" with the goal of attracting alienated young people back into the educational sphere and helping them to achieve personal growth. Two fundamental tensions existed in alternative schools-how democratic their decisionmaking would be, and how directive or free the adults would be in regulating the academic learning of the students. Although these schools tried to govern themselves in a participatory democratic manner, consensus was difficult to achieve. Furthermore, the participants could not usually agree on which educational approach they favoured. For students attending alternative schools educational results were mixed. Although most believed they had gained in self-reliance and inter-personal skills, many did not acquire sufficient literary or arithmetic knowledge and found their educational and professional careers limited. Alternative schools were hindered by financial instability, parental divisiveness, and the absence of a workable educational methodology. Further, the schools accepted too many children with special needs, or hired too many young adult teachers whose enthusiasm was greater than their pedagogical skill. Meanwhile, the social and cultural upheavals of the late 1960s had at last caused the public school system to accept some of the pedagogical and psychological premises of the alternate school movement. The examples of the alternative schools of the 1960s and early 1970s, along with the wider cultural changes of the time, led to a more flexible and inclusive public school system in the 1970s. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

Scholars have sorely neglected the subject of religion in British Columbia during the interwar years. This thesis will address this gap through a study of the relationship between Protestantism and society in the province's major urban centers, Vancouver and Victoria. I will approach the issue through a new window into the role of churches in British Columbia - the church taxation debates of the 1920's. This work begins with a review of the literature that sets the historical context of the church tax issue and reveals gaps in our knowledge of the role of religion in British Columbia. Primary source material is derived largely from newspapers, magazines, and archival material including private correspondences, City Council documents, pamphlets, and booklets. The church taxation issue illustrates the agenda of British Columbia's urban churches in a rapidly changing and secularizing society. In order to remain relevant, they were forced to consider their purpose and persuade society to agree. Exemptionists employed different strategies to convince the public of their indispensability. In Victoria, churches clung to tradition, while in Vancouver churches responded by redefining the relationship between church and state. Victoria's churches wanted the role of churches to remain unchanged while Vancouver churches sought to harmonize the churches' agenda with that of the state. In both cities, the exemptionists won their cases. However, their victories did not permanently define or secure the future role of churches. / Arts, Faculty of / Classical, Near Eastern and Religious Studies, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of this thesis was to explore the effectiveness of community kitchens as an empowerment tool. This thesis observes the ways in which community kitchens empower their participants, how they are being used to foster community development, and the opportunities and constraints in using community kitchens as an empowerment tool. The research questions are addressed in a variety of ways. First, a comprehensive literature review was undertaken to define the meaning of empowerment and community development as used by this thesis. Secondly, a multiple case study approach involving participant observation, key informant interviews and a survey was conducted to examine these questions. A total of seven community kitchens were involved in the case studies. The research suggests that community kitchens do empower participants but at an individual level. Participants learn skills such as cooperation, cooking and socialisation, and are empowered through self-help and by gaining confidence and self-esteem. At a community level, efforts have been made to empower the community and contribute to community building processes but with limited output. In some community kitchens, community development initiatives (such as volunteering to cook for a larger community) are in place but community kitchens as a whole has a minimal effect in creating community. Community kitchens, however, are effective at empowering individuals which is considered the first step to community empowerment. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This study, comprised of three major sections, reviews the concept of industrialization and its present application and future potential for the production of housing in the industrialized parts of the world, with a focus on the Province of British Columbia. The discussion presented in the first two sections is based largely on the study of the available literature on the subject. The discussion in the third section is based on visits to selected factories, interviews and available references. The first section describes the basic characteristics of industrialization, that is, (a) mass production, (b) assembly line arid centralized work and (c) organization and planning of production. It is noted that standardization, co-ordination of work and dynamic approach to marketing are essential elements of industrialization. The second section examines the relationship between the basic characteristics of industrialization and those of housing. The characteristics of housing, (such as demand for individualization, its complexity and bulkiness, cost of its production and purchase and its fluctuating market) make organization and comprehensive planning imperative for its mass production and efficient distribution. In addition to the characteristics of housing, local factors such as geography, market distribution and capital availability need to be considered in a comprehensive planning for industrialized housing. Housing, being a complex, a bulky and an expensive product, the efficiency of its factory production (off-site production) must be extended to its on-site assembly through a co-ordinated approach to both off-site and on-site works. The third section is a review of industrialized housing in British Columbia. The local geography, market distribution, availability of capital and government's role in housing are examined. The production method and the organizational approach of the "modular" and "package" housing industry are analysed. Four manufacturing firms are chosen for the analysis. It is concluded that at present the industry of factory-produced housing does not compare favourably with the site-built housing industry. The current trends of industrialization of housing are likely to remain unchanged unless an initiative is taken for a comprehensive planning of industrialized housing. This planning must consider: the need for standardization and co-ordinated off-site and on-site works; the unevenly distributed and fluctuating market; the economics of large-distance transportation on a mountainous terrain; the task of providing environmentally appropriate housing; and the characteristics of housing. Individual manufacturers are less likely to take such an initiative because of their commercial motives. Therefore, the initiative should come from the government through their housing policies, guidelines and, perhaps, financial incentives. In the absence of this initiative, the desirable development of industrialized housing benefitting the ultimate users of these housing—the dwellers, would continue to be a difficult task. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Architecture and Landscape Architecture (SALA), School of / Graduate