University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of History

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Héritier de l’universalisme humaniste de Rabindranath Tagore par sa formation à Śāntiniketan en Inde, le ditpère de l’art moderne birman Bagyi Aung Soe (1923/24–1990) se consacra à figurer les réalités ultimes enfonction des enseignements bouddhiques. Pour ce faire, il mit au point un langage pictural qu’il baptisa lapeinture « manaw maheikdi dat » qui signifie la création artistique par la culture mentale. Ses référencesvisuelles, variant de la physique à l’ésotérisme bouddhique, de la culture populaire à la poésie, comprennent toutce qui fut à sa portée intellectuelle et spirituelle dans la Birmanie socialiste militaire de 1962 à 1988. Soninsistance sur la somme des héritages propres à cet espace-temps, de même que son dépassement descloisonnements conceptuels selon les disciplines, les frontières nationales ou les divisions chronologiques, exigeun récit conçu au regard des significations contextuelles, un récit adapté et affranchi du modèle prétendumentinternational de l’art euraméricain. Afin de proposer un récit sur comment il compta rendre manifestel’insaisissable selon les circonstances propres au contexte de sa vie, nous mettons l’accent sur les conditionsaccueillant la genèse et la diffusion de cette production artistique dite « la plus moderne de l’art moderne » enraison de sa dimension transnationale et transhistorique. À partir d’une sélection parmi plus de quatre milleoeuvres et de centaines de témoignages écrits et oraux recueillis, nous examinons non seulement la fabrication decette peinture qui reste aussi non étudiée en Birmanie qu’inconnue de la scène internationale, mais aussi lesmanières dont nous pouvons la lire et la voir. / A student at Rabindranath Tagore’s ashram in Śāntiniketan, India, Myanmar’s “father of modern art” BagyiAung Soe (1923/24–1990) embraced his Indian gurus’ concept of art and the artist. In the spirit of the laureate’shumanist universalism, he strove to picture Buddhist teachings. His signature idiom christened “manawmaheikdi dat”, which has yet to be studied in Myanmar and is virtually unknown at the international level, reliedon meditation to achieve advanced mental power in order to picture the most elemental components of allphenomena, and its visual references included all that was possibly accessible under socialist rule in Burma(1962–1988). With little regard for artistic conventions and categorisations according to discipline, nation andchronology, Aung Soe drew from the sum of artistic, intellectual and spiritual traditions defining his space andtime, varying from quantum physics to esoteric Buddhism, from popular culture to poetry. The nature of hisapproach, method and subject matter, coupled with his country’s exceptional circumstances, demands a newnarrative of art that is unfettered by the assumptions inherent to the purportedly international framework ofEuramerican modern art. Focusing on the contextual significances of the genesis and reception of manawmaheikdi dat painting, this dissertation examines the making, the reading and the seeing of this pictoriallanguage whose transnational and transhistorical dimension renders it “the most modern of modern art”. Basedon a selection of the artist’s works and writings, as well as witnesses of his life and practice, we attempt a storyof how he pictured and made manifest the formless on his own terms.

Abstract The Yungang Cave Complex in Shanxi province is one of the largest Buddhist sculpture repositories produced during the Northern and Southern Dynasties. This thesis argues that the iconographic evolution of the Yungang caves underwent three developing phases which can be summarized as the five Tan Yao Caves phase, the transitional period, and the sinicized third-phase under the reigns of five Northern Wei (386-534) emperors Wencheng 文成 (452-465), Xianwen 獻文 (466-471), Xiaowen 孝文(471-499), Xuanwu 宣武 (500-515) and Xiaoming 孝明 (516-528). This dissertation studies the Yungang third-phase caves, namely those caves executed after the capital was moved from Pingcheng 平城 to Luoyang 洛陽in the year 494. It focuses primarily on what we call the western-end caves, which are composed of all the caves from cave 21 to cave 45, and as cave 5-10 and cave 5-11 are typical representations of the third-phase and even today are well preserved, they are also included in this study. Using typology method, as well as primary literary sources, this study places the western-end caves in their historical, social and religious context while focusing on four perspectives: architectural lay-out, iconographic composition, subject matter and style of representation. It deals with such questions as: what these images represent, what is their connection with Buddhist literature, what is the origin of the style of the western-end caves, what is the relationship between sculpture and painting, what is the relationship between the monastic life and Buddhist art, what was the status of Yungang after the transfer of the capital to the south, and who were the patrons. This study sheds new light on the changes in the iconographic motifs over the time from the first-phase to the third-phase and constructs a timeline for the sequence of construction of the western-end caves. The study also investigates the iconographical inter-relationship between the Yungang third-phase caves and those in the Longmen and to a lesser extent, the Gongxian complexes, as well as some relatively small caves in Shanxi province in order to trace the spread of the “Yungang Style.” This will map out the evolution in Buddhist iconographical style throughout the Central Plain of China. Although the caves of the first two phases have been studied extensively, this study is the first comprehensive examination of the Yungang third-phase caves. It is also the first investigation of the interrelationship between the Yungang style and that of other sites such as Longmen and Gongxian, as well as individual caves in the Shanxi area. This work is based on a broad consultation of primary text material and, most importantly, on first hand site observations by the researcher, which are documented by an extensive photographic record.

Abstract The Yungang Cave Complex in Shanxi province is one of the largest Buddhist sculpture repositories produced during the Northern and Southern Dynasties. This thesis argues that the iconographic evolution of the Yungang caves underwent three developing phases which can be summarized as the five Tan Yao Caves phase, the transitional period, and the sinicized third-phase under the reigns of five Northern Wei (386-534) emperors Wencheng 文成 (452-465), Xianwen 獻文 (466-471), Xiaowen 孝文(471-499), Xuanwu 宣武 (500-515) and Xiaoming 孝明 (516-528). This dissertation studies the Yungang third-phase caves, namely those caves executed after the capital was moved from Pingcheng 平城 to Luoyang 洛陽in the year 494. It focuses primarily on what we call the western-end caves, which are composed of all the caves from cave 21 to cave 45, and as cave 5-10 and cave 5-11 are typical representations of the third-phase and even today are well preserved, they are also included in this study. Using typology method, as well as primary literary sources, this study places the western-end caves in their historical, social and religious context while focusing on four perspectives: architectural lay-out, iconographic composition, subject matter and style of representation. It deals with such questions as: what these images represent, what is their connection with Buddhist literature, what is the origin of the style of the western-end caves, what is the relationship between sculpture and painting, what is the relationship between the monastic life and Buddhist art, what was the status of Yungang after the transfer of the capital to the south, and who were the patrons. This study sheds new light on the changes in the iconographic motifs over the time from the first-phase to the third-phase and constructs a timeline for the sequence of construction of the western-end caves. The study also investigates the iconographical inter-relationship between the Yungang third-phase caves and those in the Longmen and to a lesser extent, the Gongxian complexes, as well as some relatively small caves in Shanxi province in order to trace the spread of the “Yungang Style.” This will map out the evolution in Buddhist iconographical style throughout the Central Plain of China. Although the caves of the first two phases have been studied extensively, this study is the first comprehensive examination of the Yungang third-phase caves. It is also the first investigation of the interrelationship between the Yungang style and that of other sites such as Longmen and Gongxian, as well as individual caves in the Shanxi area. This work is based on a broad consultation of primary text material and, most importantly, on first hand site observations by the researcher, which are documented by an extensive photographic record.

[ES] La presente tesis profundiza en el saber metodológico, material y simbólico del tipo de bien cultural categorizado como "escultura arquitectónica en terracruda", dirigiéndolo a dilucidar los problemas conservativos que le son característicos. Para ello parte de la hipótesis según la cual el empleo simbólico de la tierra con fines espirituales es el que habría conducido al desarrollo de un método o conjunto de técnicas encaminadas a la representación de la divinidad mediante este material, las cuales podrían mostrar un patrón de elaboración común repetido a lo largo del tiempo y preservado hasta nuestros días. En la verificación de dicha hipótesis se emplea un enfoque multimodal, comparando: los datos obtenidos del estudio de la bibliografía histórico-arqueológica, la documentación del conocimiento tradicional conservado en el noroeste de la India y algunas áreas del Himalaya y los análisis de muestras de ejemplos de esculturas arqueológicas de entre los siglos V y X d.C., procedentes en los yacimientos budistas de Tepe Narenj y Qol-e-tut (Kabul, Afganistán). Los resultados demuestran la existencia de un patrón de elaboración común y por lo tanto la conexión de este tipo de obras con un saber milenario preservado durante más de 2.000 años en algunas regiones de Asia. Con ello, no sólo se amplía el conocimiento científico que hasta hoy se tenía de esta clase de obras y se sientan las bases para un protocolo de actuación dirigido a mejorar su conservación en caso de ser halladas en contexto arqueológico, si no que los resultados ofrecen una nueva perspectiva de estudio, a la vez que sirven para inspirar futuras líneas de intervención más acordes con su naturaleza y significado. / [CA] La present tesi aprofundeix en el saber metodològic, material i simbòlic del tipus de bé cultural categoritzat com "escultura arquitectònica en terracrua", dirigint-lo a dilucidar els problemes conservatius que li són característics. Per fer-ho parteix de la hipòtesi segons la qual l'ús simbòlic de la terra amb finalitats espirituals és el que hauria conduït a el desenvolupament d'un mètode o conjunt de tècniques encaminades a la representació de la divinitat mitjançant aquest material, les quals podrien mostrar un patró d'elaboració comú repetit al llarg de el temps i preservat fins als nostres dies. En la verificació d'aquesta hipòtesi s'ha emprat un enfoc multimodal, comparant: les dades obtingudes mitjançant l'estudi de la bibliografia històrico-arqueològica, la documentació del coneixement tradicional conservat al nord-oest de l'Índia i algunes àrees de l'Himàlaia i les anàlisis de mostres d'exemples d'escultures arqueològiques d'entre els segles V i X dC, procedents en els jaciments budistes de Tepe Narenj i Qol-e-tut (Kabul, Afganistan). Els resultats demostren l'existència d'un patró d'elaboració comú i per tant la connexió d'aquest tipus d'obres amb un saber mil·lenari preservat durant més de 2.000 anys en algunes regions d'Àsia. Les dades obtingudes no tan sols amplien el coneixement científic que fins avui es tenia d'aquesta classe d'obres, posant les bases per a un protocol d'actuació dirigit a millorar la seva conservació en cas de ser trobades en context arqueològic, sinó que també ofereixen una nova perspectiva d'estudi, alhora que serveixen per inspirar futures línies d'intervenció més d'acord amb la seva naturalesa i significat. / [EN] The present thesis delves into the methodological, material, and symbolic knowledge of a type of cultural heritage categorized as "architectural sculpture in terracruda" to elucidate the conservation problems that are characteristic of it. To this end, it is based on the hypothesis that the symbolic use of "earth" for spiritual purposes is what would have led to the development of a method or set of techniques aimed at the representation of the divinity through this material, which could show a common pattern of elaboration repeated over time and preserved to the present day. A multimodal approach is used to verify this hypothesis, comparing the data obtained through the study of the historical-archaeological literature, the documentation of traditional knowledge preserved in north-western India and some areas of the Himalayas and the analysis of archaeological samples of sculptures from the 5th to 10th centuries A.D., from the Buddhist sites of Tepe Narenj and Qol-e-tut (Kabul, Afghanistan). The results demonstrate the existence of a common pattern of elaboration and therefore the connection of this type of works with a millenary knowledge preserved for more than 2,000 years in some regions of Asia. This not only broadens the scientific knowledge of this type of work and lays the foundations for an action protocol aimed at improving their conservation in case they are found in an archaeological context, but the results also offer a new perspective of study, while serving to inspire future lines of intervention more in line with their nature and significance. / Gracias a la valiosa ayuda de la National Geographic Society (EC-59568C-19) / López Prat, M. (2021). La escultura arquitectónica en terracruda: análisis tecnológico basado en la evidencia histórico-arqueológica y el estudio del conocimiento tradicional [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/174682 / TESIS

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Im Fokus dieser Studie stehen mehrere Gruppen von tragbaren Skulpturen unterschiedlicher Größe und aus unterschiedlichem Material gefertigt (Bronze bzw. Papiermaché), die eine bestimmte Überlieferungslinie von Lehrern der Lamdre-Tradition darstellen. Lamdre („Der Weg und das Resultat“) bildet das zentrale religiöse Lehrsystem der Sakya-Schule des tibetischen Buddhismus und ihrer wichtigsten Zweigschule, der Ngor-Schule. Diese wenig bekannten oder weitgehend unerforschten Skulpturen und Skulpturengruppen befinden sich in der Sammlung des Klosters Namgyal in Mustang (Nepal), dem ehemaligen Königreich von Lowo (Glo bo), an der Grenze zu Tibet gelegen. Sie stammen aus dem späten 15. bis frühen 16. Jahrhundert, einer höchst innovativen Phase buddhistischer Kunstproduktion in Tibet und dem Himalaya, in der sich regionale Stile entwickelten und neue künstlerische Gestaltungsformen erprobt wurden, einschließlich verschiedener Arten des Porträts. Hierzu zählen idealisierte, typisierte, und gelegentlich hoch-expressive, Darstellungen von Lehrern innerhalb einer Überlieferungslinie ebenso wie individualisierte, realistische Einzelporträts von bedeutenden buddhistischen Meistern, die offensichtlich nach dem lebenden Modell geschaffen wurden. Basierend auf einer vergleichenden kunsthistorischen Analyse zeigt die Arbeit, dass der Repräsentation der Überlieferungslinie als Ganzes eine höhere Stellung beigemessen wurde als der Schaffung von Ähnlichkeit mit den einzelnen Figuren innerhalb einer Skulpturengruppe. Die Bildwerke reflektieren außerdem die religiösen, historischen und künstlerischen Verbindungen zwischen Mustang und angrenzenden Königreichen in West-Tibet, der Provinz Tsang und dem Kathmandu-Tal. Sie zeigen, dass die lokalen Klöster auf ein etabliertes Netzwerk von buddhistischen Klostergemeinschaften, machtvollen und wohlhabenden Stiftern und künstlerischen Traditionen aufbauen konnten, und dass sich die Region als ein Zentrum skulpturaler Produktion von höchster Qualität und Innovation etablierte. / This two-volume dissertation on lineage portraiture in Tibetan Buddhist art investigates in its core a body of portable sculpture preserved in a monastery in Mustang, Nepal. Most of these sculptures were originally part of sets documenting the person-to-person transmission of the most important teaching of the Ngor tradition, the Lamdre or “Path with the Result.” The Ngor tradition is a sub-tradition of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism to which this teaching traces back. Accordingly, most Sakyapa and Ngorpa monasteries may have had one or more Lamdre lineage sets in painting and/or sculpture. The focus of the study is on the iconographic and overall visual conceptions of different sets representing the same teacher lineage produced for or within the same regional context (Mustang in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries). A comparative analysis of the different sets shows that depicting the lineage teachers as a collective entity was deemed more important than creating physical likenesses of the individual teachers. This is reflected in the variation of the depiction of individual teachers from one set to another in terms of facial features, hand gestures, and even the type of practice a teacher may be associated with. The study also considers the emergence and evolution of teacher lineages within the Sakya school, introducing lineage representations on monumental backrest arches in repoussé work at the Sakya Lhakhang Chenmo in south-western Tibet. It also discusses teacher portraits produced outside the Lamdre lineage to reflect on questions of individuality, realism and likeness in Tibetan portraiture. A special focus is on portraits of two princely monks from the ruling house of Mustang, Lowo Khenchen and Lodrö Gyaltsen Pelzangpo. Overall, the lineage depictions and individual portraits are analyzed in relation to art history research on portraiture, Tibetan religious and political history, as well as their religious significance and ritual use.