Hundreds of research articles have been published about variables related to bystander helping behavior. Although significant gender differences have been found in bystander intervention research, the results have been incongruent with little explanation about the relationship between gender and bystander interventions. This study assessed the relationship between conformity to masculine role norms and bystander intervention behavior. In this study, 200 college students completed the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46 (CMNI-46) to determine the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and the level of bystander intervention selected on the Bystander Intervention Measure (BIM). It was hypothesized that a significant main effect would exist between conformity to masculine norms and the types of bystander interventions selected. Participants also completed surveys on bystander self-efficacy, bystander intervention decision making, and prosocial tendencies (Prosocial Tendencies Measure). Four hypotheses were developed for this study. It was hypothesized that there would be a statistically significant difference in scores on the five CMNI-46 subscales of winning, emotional control, risk-taking, violence, and self-reliance and the degree of involvement and immediacy of bystander interventions the four subscales of the Bystander Intervention Measure (BIM); that the five CMNI-46 subscales will still account for more variance regarding the degree of involvement and immediacy of bystander interventions even after controlling for prosocial tendencies from the PTM subscales; that there would be a statistically significant difference in scores on the five CMNI-46 subscales and the six PTM subscales, and that the five CMNI-46 subscales would predict bystander self-efficacy and decision making scores.

Arbetsplatsmobbning har omfattande konsekvenser för individer i arbetslivet och samhället. Observatören har en viktig roll i arbetet mot mobbning, då dennes ingripande kan influera andra att göra detsamma. Denna studie undersökte om observatörens kön, locus of control och erfarenhet av observerad mobbning har en påverkan på intentionen att ingripa vid en mobbningssituation. Detta prövades utifrån sex hypoteser och frågeställningen hur relationen ser ut mellan ovangivna variabler i förhållandet till intentionen att ingripa vid mobbning. 165 individer i arbetslivet, varav 114 kvinnor, besvarade en enkät vilken innehöll Rotters The internal-external scale, en justerad Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised och ett instrument inspirerat av Hektner och Swensons påstående om intentionen att ingripa. Materialet anlyserades med hjälp av tvåvägs-ANOVA och Pearsons korrelationskoefficient. Studiens resultat var att erfarenhet av observerad mobbning, både enskilt och i kombination med kön och locus of control, påverkar intentionen att ingripa. Kön och locus of control visade inte på signifikanta huvudeffekter.

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Peer bullying is a widespread and longstanding problem in school settings. Teachers, students, administrators, government, and researchers alike have all tried to combat bullying through bullying prevention campaigns. One strategy used in bullying prevention campaigns is to call on bystanders in bullying situations to take responsible action. While many different forms of campaigns, including print and media campaigns, have aimed at trying to reduce the presence of bullying in schools by informing bystanders, there is still a need to find new strategies for reducing bullying behavior. One potential media form that could be used in bullying prevention campaigns is the use of virtual reality. Virtual reality simulations allow for a more immersive environment than other media forms, as the medium is capable of creating feelings of presence, various perspectives, and empathy in its users. This thesis reports results from a one-factor, three-condition laboratory experiment comparing responses to portrayals of a bullying situation in which users (N = 78) were placed in the perspective of a bystander in a bullying scenario across three different media stimulus conditions: a customized virtual reality condition, a non-customized virtual reality condition, and a video condition. The study compared effects of the media stimulus conditions on empathy, attitudes toward bullying victims and bullying, and anticipated future bystander behaviors, as well as presence and other outcomes related to perceptions of bullying. While it was hypothesized that the study would find stronger effects on empathy and anti-bullying bystander attitudes and anticipated behaviors among the VR conditions, and in particular the customized VR condition, the study found no differences between media stimulus conditions for any outcomes except a significant effect on empathy, with participants in the video condition tending to report more feelings of empathy for participants than participants in the other two conditions, and perceptions of bullying as a problem in the participants' school, again with scores highest in the video condition. This pattern of results was further explored in a follow-up qualitative focus group study (N = 10), in which trends from two focus group sessions featuring 10 participants indicated that the quality of the virtual reality graphics effected empathy, a lack of bystander intervention options reduced effectiveness, and customization cues had little effect on participants. Results from the laboratory experiment and follow-up focus group study suggest that in some cases, it may be difficult to use VR simulations to elicit empathy-related prosocial responses. While further study is needed to clarify what features of VR simulations might make them most effective in encouraging certain prosocial behaviors, findings here suggest that photorealistic graphics should be used in VR simulations to evoke empathy, additional intervention capabilities in VR simulations could make them more effective in producing bystander intervention behavior, and that customization cues should be prominent and possibly individually tailored. ' / Master of Arts

Sexual assault of women is a well-documented phenomenon in U.S. samples, particularly on college campuses. Innovative approaches to prevention encourage men and women to intervene as bystanders in sexual assault situations; however, bystander behavior is notoriously inhibited by various situational factors. This study used a mixed-method approach to better understand the role of situational factors in college men’s bystander behavioral intentions in a party gang rape situation. The first aim was to develop an experimental paradigm using vignette methodology to manipulate the amount of masculinity threat present in a party gang rape situation, which could then be used to explore the effect of masculinity threat on men’s bystander behavioral intentions. Although I was unable to heighten masculinity threat, findings indicate that a previous relationship with the offenders results in men expecting a typical male college bystander to experience less negative affect in the situation. The second aim was to use the vignettes to examine whether men’s perception of the rape-supportive and traditional masculine gender role norms among the offenders involved, as well as indicators of masculinity threat, would predict men’s bystander behavioral intentions. Boding well for bystander intervention programs, the majority (98%) of men reported intention to intervene to stop the assault to some degree, although this intention was lower for men who perceived the party gang rape situation to result in more negative affect for a typical college male bystander. Data depicts the party gang rape situation as one in which masculine norms and masculinity threat are salient; however, these aspects did not play a role in intentions to intervene. Eighteen percent of men reported some intention to join in the assault, which was predicted by perceived masculine norms and men’s demographic characteristics. Findings point to the importance of culturally competent programming and the utility of incorporating a social norms approach in bystander intervention programs. Programs may benefit from addressing concerns about retaliation, particularly as a function of men’s relationships to the offenders. A limitation is the exclusion of individual difference variables to explore whether men’s own attitudes interact with situational factors to predict bystander behavioral intentions.

Cyberbullying incidents often occur in the presence of other bystanders. The inaction of bystanders can augment the deleterious effects of bullying on a victim. However, bystanders can often take action to stop a cyberbullying incident or offer support to the victim. Two studies examined the association between several variables which were expected to influence the propensity for a bystander to take action in cyberbullying incidents -- the number of bystanders, the depersonalization/anonymity of the bystander, and the relational closeness between the bystander and the victim. Moreover, the first study addressed the need for more descriptive research into cyberbullying by examining the strategies and topics used by perpetrators. Results of both Study 1 and Study 2 provided support for the diffusion of responsibility effect. Specifically, a higher number of bystanders was negatively associated with a bystander's propensity to intervene and stop the incident. In Study 2, this effect was moderated by both depersonalization and closeness. That is, individuals were most likely to intervene when they did not feel depersonalized, the victim was a close friend, and there were a low number of bystanders. Moreover, in both Study 1 and Study 2 the perceived anonymity of bystanders negatively related to their propensity to intervene, and closeness with the victim was associated with a higher likelihood to intervene and support the victim. Finally, descriptive data illustrated the types and strategies of cyberbullying episodes which occur in a college-aged sample. Altogether, the results shed light on the interplay of context, relationships, and technology in the behavior of bystanders to a cyberbullying episode. / text

Because racism remains a significant issue in society, and many victims of racism do not speak up for themselves when faced with racism, it is important to explore how witnesses to racist events may react and intervene upon observing racism toward others. Thus, the current study explored how participants (bystanders) reacted verbally to racist comments made by a confederate during a partner activity, as well as how participants discussed their reactions in post-interviews. Forty college students participated in the study, and three of the participants verbally intervened upon hearing the racist statements. Ajzen's theory of planned behavior was utilized as a framework, and examination of the results indicated that components of the theory as well as social constructions of racism and appropriateness of intervention behaviors affect intervention outcomes. Theoretical, methodological, and practical implications, as well as suggestions for future research are included.

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Ethnic minorities often experience microaggressions that cause psychological distress and increase health risks. Bystander interventions are good ways to intervene when microaggressions take place and provide emotional support for ethnic minority targets. White interveners and interventions that pose low threats to White aggressors are perceived more positively than ethnic minority interveners and interventions that are more confrontational and direct. Furthermore, a support-based intervention that validates White aggressors’ good intention and effort without judgement may help White aggressors feel less defensive and more receptive to the intervention. Asian Americans face unique microaggressive themes and their racial experiences are influenced by the stereotype that they are model minorities. Asian Americans may prefer the supportive interventions because they are congruent with Asian cultural values such as relational harmony. The current set of studies assessed the effect of different intervention formats (high threat, low threat, support based) and race of interveners (Asian vs. White) on Asian American targets and White witnesses’ emotional change, perceptions of the intervention, and willingness for future interracial interactions. Among three intervention formats, Asian American targets perceived the intervener and aggressor least negatively in the support intervention. Asian American targets perceived the intervener least positively, whereas White witnesses perceived intervener most negatively in the high-threat intervention. White witnesses perceived the intervener more positively and had more interests in making friends with them when they are White than Asian in high-threat and supportive interventions. White witnesses’ favorable perceptions of aggressor were only influenced by a high degree of racial colorblindness. Overall, the support approach seems to be the most socially appropriate and accepting bystander intervention strategy to intervene in microaggressions targeted at Asian Americans. The high-threat approach is likely to damage interveners’ social image, especially when the intervener is Asian.