A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2014. / The Middle Stone Age rock shelter site Sibudu contains abundant evidence of pyrotechnology (the controlled use of fire) such as combustion features, ashy layers and lenses and burned bone. I study the use, reuse and discard of fire at Sibudu and the layers Brown/Grey mix and Brown under Yellow Ash 2(i) from the post-Howiesons Poort (post-HP) industry (c. 58 000 years BP) and the layers Pinkish Grey Sand and Pinkish Grey Sand 2 from the Howiesons Poort (HP) techno-tradition (c. 65 000 years BP) are selected for detailed studies. I describe properties of selected combustion features, such as size, form, number of hearth strata, contents (bone, charcoal and stone) and pH values. The post-HP combustion features generally contain a higher proportion of charcoal and are more acidic than the HP combustion features, suggesting post-depositional differences. Twenty actualistic experiments including 39 experimental fires constitute the largest component and contribution of this thesis. The experiments were conducted in two cycles; the first cycle of experiments burned (in different fires) one each of the wood taxa Casuarina equisetifolia, Dichrostachys cinerea, Eucalyptus globulus or Acacia erioloba and the second cycle of experiments burned Dichrostachys cinerea exclusively. Variables such as wood mass, topsoil horizon and number of sequential fires were carefully controlled. The surface and subsurface temperatures of the experimental fires were recorded. The experimental hearths were excavated using similar techniques as those used at Sibudu. Surface temperatures vary greatly even under similar environmental conditions, but subsurface temperatures are more predictable. Five kilograms of wood is sufficient to produce high temperatures for several hours, and slowly adding logs to a fire ensures even temperatures. Sibudu's hearths have a basal black layer with charcoal, but experimental fires do not. Instead they produced 2 – 5 distinct strata, and long-burning fires produced more strata than short-burning ones. Experimental ash dumps lack strata. Areal extent of a hearth is dependent on the wood mass burned, but its depth is dependent on the wood taxon burned. I present spatial analysis of charcoal, bone and knapped stone from the selected Sibudu layers using Kernel density estimation. Higher densities of bone, charcoal and stone are present in the post-HP layers than in the HP. Specialist studies of wood taxa, micromorphology and organic petrology are also included. No specific firewood taxa were preferred, but herbaceous plants were burned at 65 000 years ago, suggesting short fires. This thesis provides a foundation for future research on fire-related behaviour at Sibudu and other Middle Stone Age sites. For example, higher acidity was recorded in the post-HP than in the HP combustion features; this could be caused by different diagenesis and geoarchaeological studies need to be conducted to resolve the issue.. In addition, all the primarily deposited archaeological combustion features in this study were underlain by a basal black layer rich in charcoal, but such layers did not develop in the experimental combustion features and I cannot explain this difference. Thus it is necessary to conduct more studies of the variables affecting the formation and preservation of combustion features. One aspect to study experimentally is the range of attributes controlling surface temperatures of campfires. Amongst the experiments described here, experimental fires burning five kg wood produced maximum surface temperatures in the range of 132 - 848°C, which demonstrates that surface temperatures are unpredictable. The implication is that producing particular temperatures of a fire is not straight-forward and that prehistoric fire users needed planning abilities and a thorough knowledge of pyrotechnology. Both these skills require mental abilities like those of modern people and they also require a sophisticated understanding of environmental conditions.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Archaeology. Johannesburg, 2015 / Large cutting tools (LCTs) are a stone tool techno-group that appeared ca. 1.76 Ma in Africa and marked the beginning of the Acheulean. The group is conventionally comprised of three tool types called handaxes, cleavers, and picks. The function of LCTs has only been determined through assumptions (e.g., names based on historical antecedents or assigning functional names to morpho-types) or through experimental tasks designed to determine if a particular tool type was efficient for a given task, (e.g., are handaxes conducive to butchery tasks?). To date, no extensive use-wear analysis has been carried out on African Acheulean LCTs. This is the pioneering study. Utilising a multi-stranded approach comprised of experimental archaeology, blind testing and low- power use-wear analysis the functions of a sample of LCTs from The Cave of Hearths were derived. The Cave of Hearths (CoH) lies in the Makapan Valley in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Excavations were carried out from 1947 to 1954, and it is these excavations from which this study draws its sample. Thirty-eight handaxes and cleavers from the CoH Bed 3 Acheulean (ca. 0.5 Ma) were submitted to a low-power use-wear analysis. The results showed that a full range of tasks was performed on site including: wood- working, animal and vegetal matter processing, accompanied by digging and a number of other tasks. Corroborated by faunal analysis and an environmental reconstruction, the results suggest that the cave acted as a home camp/ residential base to the hominins that inhabited the area during the Acheulean. Additionally, evidence was found which may indicate that two of the tools were possibly hafted. If this finding is corroborated by future studies it would push back by approximately 150 Ka the earliest date previously published for hafting with Mode 3 tools.

A Masters Dissertation submitted to the faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand in fulfillment of the requirements for the Masters` degree. Johannesburg 2016. / The Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels (c. 100 – 72 ka) (thousand years) at Blombos Cave, South Africa, contain buried remnants of human existence and their activities (these include ochre-stained shell beads, processed ochre pieces, bone tools, stone tools, and ochre processing toolkits). A preliminary study on the occupation layers at Blombos Cave was done in order to chemically and physically characterise the sediment deposits. The interpretation of the information preserved in these sediments, as a result of human activities, was achieved by using the following characterisation techniques: FT-IR, ICP-OES/MS, CHNS analysis as well as pH and EC measurements. Fluctuations in the bio-essential trace elements (K, P, Mg, Ca, S, Fe, Al, Cr, Na, Cu and C) and in the markers of in situ burning (P, K, C, Ca and Mg) through the MSA levels suggested a non-contiunous anthropogenic occupation of the cave. Further, the dark coloured layers were indicative of periods when heavy human activities, such as fire use, were encoutered. These layers were characterised by high levels of P, K, C, Ca and Mg, also elevated pH and EC levels were observed. The calcite origin for these sediment deposits was confirmed to be pyrogenic. The layers found to contain large bone, ochre and shell densities (with no evidence of fire use) had high levels of Fe, P high Ca and low EC. The calcite origin for these sediment deposits was geogenic. Biogenic calcite was only observed in the more recent CA and CC layers. Substantial amounts of ochre assemblages were recovered from the MSA levels at Blombos Cave. Among these was an ochre processing toolkit recovered from the CP layer (c.100 ka). Ochre is abundant in African archaeological sites after 165 ka and is likely to have played a symbolic role in the lives of prehistoric people. It contains an iron-oxide mineral as well as accessory minerals. When mixed with a binder (such as fat or water) ochre can be used as a pigment. A large number of fragmented bone remains were found in the M1 and M2 levels. It is suggested that the majority of the fragmentation occurred while the bones were in a fresh state; implying marrow extraction by the site occupants. The exploitation of bone marrow was crucial in order to extract the fat and use it as a binder during the pigment production. Some of the broken and marrow-extracted bones were heated and used as fuel during seasons when wood was scarce while the other bones were deliberately engraved for symbolic intent. The characterisation of the ochre processing toolkit was achieved by mineralogical analysis and elemental fingerprinting. FT-IR analysis revealed that the general matrix of the ochre samples comprised of hematite (Fe2O3) or goethite (α-FeO(OH)) as the main chromophores and clay minerals (such as kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), muscovite [(KF)2(Al2O3)3(SiO2)6(H2O)] and illite [K(Al4Si2O9(OH)3)]), calcite (CaCO3) and quartz (SiO2) as the main accessory minerals. PXRD analysis confirmed Fe2O3, Al2Si2O5 (OH)4, [K(Al4Si2O9(OH)3)] and SiO2 to be the predominant mineral phases in the ochre, implying this specific type of ochre was preferred during the production of the pigment. Fe2O3 contributed the red hue and the aluminosilicates their clayey properties making them good extenders of the pigment. Multivariate statistics and Fe ratios made it possible to identify elements important for differentiating the ochre recovered from the CP layer. Analysis of variance (ANOVA one-way) showed a statistically significant difference between the ochre residues in terms of trace elemental profiling. The variance suggested different geological origins for the ochre. FT-IR was used as a screening technique for any organic residues associated with the toolkit and GC-MS was used to identify the preserved organic residues. These were mostly lipids and terpenes. The identified bio-molecular markers; stearic acid and dehydroabietic acid were exploited to give insight on the origin of the residues. Stearic acid suggested the use of animal fat while dehydroabietic acid implied the use of a resin (potentially as a binder in the pigment). The characterisation investigations revealed that the prehistoric populations at Blombos Cave specifically sourced hematite and aluminosilicate- containing ochre pigments in order to fulfil their social and cultural demands. The MSA site occupants’ chemical understanding of these materials suggested they were technologically advanced. Keywords: Blombos Cave, MSA levels, ochre, mineralogical analysis and elemental fingerprinting. / LG2017

Ctenus fasciatus e Enoploctenus cyclothorax (Araneae: Ctenidae) foram estudadas em cavernas da área cárstica do Alto Ribeira, município de Iporanga, sul de São Paulo, abordando a distribuição no meio subterrâneo, ecologia populacional, deslocamentos, alimentação e reprodução e crescimento. A primeira espécie foi estudada na Gruta da Lage Branca, localizada no Parque Estadual Turístico do Alto Ribeira (PETAR), e em quatro cavernas do Parque Estadual Intervales (Grutas da Barra Bonita, do Tatu, do Fóssil Desconhecido e Toca Detrás), enquanto que E. cyclothorax foi estudada apenas nas cavernas mencionadas do PEI. Utilizou-se o método de marcação e recaptura em viagens mensais e os dados obtidos foram analisados pelo método de Jolly-Seber para se estimar o tamanho das populações. Observou-se que as populações são sazonais, com pico no número de exemplares encontrados coincidindo com o período reprodutivo, que ocorre no verão (novembro a março) para C. fasciatus e no inverno (maio a outubro), para E. cyclothorax. A população de C. fasciatus estudada na Lage Branca apresentou uma acentuada queda de um ano para o outro, o que foi atribuído às constantes enxurradas que ocorreram no período de estudo e às atividades turísticas descontroladas. Também houve queda populacional para essa espécie no conjunto das cavernas do PEI, entretanto em menor escala, a qual foi interpretada como flutuação natural das populações. No caso de E. cyclothorax, o estudo populacional no PEI sugere que a população de exemplares adultos se renova anualmente, com indivíduos machos mais errantes e fêmeas sedentárias. Concluiu-se que estas últimas são trogloxenas não obrigatórias, enquanto aranhas C. fasciatus são troglófilas, distribuídas por todo o interior das cavernas e raramente encontradas no meio epígeo. Estas últimas são caracteristicamente errantes, observando-se deslocamentos de até 140 m em períodos máximos de 4 e 5 meses. Exemplares das duas espécies foram transportados ao laboratório, em sala climatizada no Departamento de Zoologia da USP, onde foram mantidos para acompanhamento do comportamento reprodutivo e desenvolvimento pós-embrionário. Aranhas de uma outra espécie da mesma família (Isoctenus sp.), coletada na Lapa do Angélica, situada no Parque de Terra Ronca (PETER), município de São Domingos (GO), reproduziram-se em laboratório e também foram acompanhadas com relação ao desenvolvimento pós-embrionário. O desenvolvimento tanto de C. fasciatus como de Isoctenus sp. é longo (três a quatro anos), e essas aranhas só atingem a vida adulta após 17 ou 18 mudas. Não foi possível acompanhar o desenvolvimento pós-embrionário de E. cyclothorax, pois os exemplares jovens não suportaram as condições de laboratório. Após a cópula, as fêmeas de C. fasciatus sempre se alimentam dos machos para suportar longos períodos sem alimentação até o nascimento e dispersão dos filhotes. E. cyclothorax pode alimentar-se dos machos ou não, já que elas abandonam suas posturas periodicamente para buscar alimento. As ootecas das três espécies são fixas ao substrato rochoso, em superfícies verticais, e nascem aproximadamente 400 a 500 aranhiços de cada ooteca. / Ctenus fasciatus e Enoploctenus cyclothorax (Araneae: Ctenidae) from caves in the Alto Ribeira karst area, Iporanga Co., southern State of São Paulo, were studied with focus on their distribution in the subterranean habitat, population ecology, movements, feeding, and reproduction and growth. The populations of C. fasciatus from Lage Branca Cave, in the Parque Estadual Turístico do Alto Ribeira (PETAR), and from four caves in the Parque Estadual Intervales (Barra Bonita, do Tatu, do Fóssil Desconhecido e Toca Detrás), as well as those of E. cyclothorax found in the latter, were investigated using mark-recapture techniques. These populations are seasonal, with a peak in the number of observed specimens coincident with the reproductive season, which occurs in the summer (November to March) for C. fasciatus and in the winter for E. cyclothorax. There was an accentuated decrease in the population of C. fasciatus in the Lage Branca Cave from the first to the second study year (2001 to 2002), possibly due to floodings and/or poorly controlled touristic visitation. A less accentuated population decrease was also observed for C. fasciatus in caves from the PEI, possibly representing a natural fluctuation. For E. cyclothorax, the study in the PEI indicates that the males are errant and the females tend to be sedentary, and that the adult population renews every year. Females of E. cyclothorax are non-obligatory trogloxenes (aparently males do not use the hypogean habitat), whereas C. fasciatus is a typical troglophile rarely found in the epigean environment. The latter is found throughout the caves, in different substrata (walking on the floor, on rocky walls, hidden in crevices or log); 140 m long movements within 4-5 months were observed for two individuals. Individuals of both species, as well as Isoctenus sp. from a cave in São Domingos karst area, State of Goiás, Central Brazil, were kept in laboratory for study of reproduction and postembryonic development. Development in C. fasciatus and Isoctenus sp. Takes a long time (three to four years till the sexual maturity) and a relatively high numbers of moults (at least 17-18). It was not possibly to describe the postembryonic development in E. cyclothorax because the spiderlings did not survive in laboratory. C. fasciatus females usually eat the male after copulating, probably as an adaptation to survive the long time of parental care without leaving the egg sac to feed. Females of E. cyclothorax may or may not eat the males, and may leave temporarily the egg sac to eat.

Sem Efeito. / Sem Efeito.

A ausência de informações sobre a fauna de mamíferos do Pleistoceno brasileiro que vão além de estudos taxonômicos/descritivos e a carência de escavações com um controle estratigráfico mínimo motivaram as intervenções nos depósitos da Gruta Cuvieri (Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brasil) aplicando-se um método de escavação refinado. Este método registrou em detalhe a distribuição espacial dos fósseis, bem como o contexto sedimentar em que estavam depositados, representando uma investida pioneira para a paleomastozoologia nacional. O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar parte dos fósseis exumados de um dos depósitos escavados, um abismo denominado Locus 3, e compreender melhor os processos relacionados com a formação do pacote fossilífero. Para isso, o material fóssil foi analisado sob duas perspectivas: 1) como elementos esqueléticos, através da análise anatômica e taxonômica e 2) como bioclastos, através da análise tafonômica. Em ambos os casos também foram considerados aspectos da distribuição espacial dos fósseis. Os resultados da análise taxonômica indicaram a presença de 16 indivíduos de Tayassuidae, 9 de Cuniculus paca, 8 de Cervidae, 7 de Cuniculus major e 1 de Panthera onça. Considerando-se estes animais e aqueles identificados em outros trabalhos sobre o Locus 3, a variedade taxonômica representada neste babismo é pequena, indicando uma forte seleção dos grupos incorporados. Com relação ao peso corporal, verificou-se a presença de animais de pequeno, médio e grande porte, sugerindo pouca seleção para esta característica. De acordo com a distribuição espacial dos remanescentes de meso e megamamíferos, os últimos foram depositados apenas mais recentemente, indicando que o potencial para o aprisionamento de animais do Locus 3 tornou-se mais abrangente ao longo do tempo. Os resultados da análise tafonômica indicam que a formação do depósito fossilífero foi complexa, envolvendo processos cuja ação foi muitas vezes simultânea e sobreposta. Dentre os processos analizados, a fragmentação foi o mais intenso, agindo desde a necrólise das carcaças até depois do soterramento final do material. O pisoteio foi identificado como o principal agente de fragmentação do material, seguido pela queda de animais e de blocos de calcário e pela compactação da coluna sedimentar. O intemperismo foi o segundo fator mais importante na alteração das condições originais do material. Este fator modificou a superfície dos ossos de todo o pacote fossilífero, sugerindo que a taxa ii de sedimentação no Locus 3 foi baixa. A abrasão, outro fator analisado, teve uma contribuição modesta na alteração do material, ocorrendo principalmente na superfície e devido à ação da água, que por sua vez foi importante para o retrabalhamento do material. Carnívoros e roedores também tiveram uma pequena contribuição na formação do pacote fossilífero. A distribuição espacial das peças remontadas indica predominância da dispersão de ossos em superfície e em diferentes momentos da formação do pacote fossilífero. Além disso, as mudanças pós-deposicionais dos sedimentos foram importantes para a dispersão vertical de peças remontadas. Por último, a natureza confinada do abismo, a alta densidade de fósseis e a baixa taxa de sedimentação favoreceram a mistura vertical e horizontal de ossos/dentes de diferentes indivíduos e táxons. A complexidade identificada na formação do depósito tem implicações para o estudo de sítios em cavernas, especialmente no que diz respeito ao uso da associação espacial de fósseis para subsidiar interpretações deposicionais e paleoambientais. / The absence of information from the Brazilian Pleistocene mammalian fauna that goes beyond the taxonomic/descriptive studies and the lack of excavations with minimal stratigraphic control motivated the interventions in the Gruta Cuvieri (Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil) deposits applying a fine resolution excavation method. This method recorded in detail the spacial distribution of fossils as well as the sedimentologic context where the fossils were embedded, representing a pioneering foray to the national paleomastozoology. The objective of this work was to characterize part of the fossils exhumed from one of the excavated deposits, a pit named Locus 3, and to better understand the processes related with the development of this fossiliferous package. In order to do so, I analyzed the fossil material under two perspectives: 1) as skeletal elements, through the anatomic and taxonomic analysis and 2) as bioclasts, through the taphonomic analysis. In both approaches I also considered aspects of the spacial distribution of fossils. The results of the taxonomic analysis indicate the presence of 16 individuals of Tayassuidae, 9 of Cuniculus paca, 8 of Cervidae, 7 of Cuniculus major and 1 of Panthera onca. Considering these animals and those identified in other studies of Locus 3 the taxonomic variety represented in this pit is small, indicating a strong selection of groups incorporated therein. With regard to body weight there was the presence of animals of small, medium and large size, suggesting little selection for this feature. According to the spacial distribution of the remains of meso and megamammals, the latter were deposited only more recently, indicating that the Locus 3 potential for trapping animals had become more inclusive over time. The results of the taphonomic analysis indicate that the formation of the fossiliferous deposit was complex, involving processes that were acting often simultaneously and superimposed. Among the processes evaluated, the fragmentation was the most intense, acting from the necrolysis of the carcasses to after the final burial of the material. Trampling was identified as the main agent of material fragmentation, followed by the fall of animals and limestone blocks and by the compression of the sedimentary column. Weathering was the second most important factor in altering the original condition of the material. This feature modified the surfaces of the bone remains all over the fossiliferous package, suggesting slow sedimentation rate in Locus 3. Abrasion, another factor analysed, had a modest contribution in shaping the material, occurring iv mainly in the surface and due to the action of water, which in turn was important for the reworking of the material. Carnivores and rodents had also a small contribution to the fossiliferous package formation. The spacial distribution of the refitted pieces indicates predominance of bones dispersion on surface and at different times of the fossiliferous package formation. In addition, the post-depositional changes of the sediments were important to the vertical dispersion of refitted pieces. Lastly, the confined nature of the pit, the high density of fossils and the slow sedimentation rate favored vertical and horizontal mixture of bones/teeth of different individuals and taxa. The complexity identified in the deposit formation has implications for the study of cave sites, especially with regard to the use of spacial fossils association to subsidize depositional and paleoenvironmental interpretations.

A Serra do André(SAL) Lopes constitui um planalto carbonático de natureza dolomítica desenvolvido no Mármore da Tapagem (Grupo Açungui - Mesoproterozoico) localizada no alto vale do rio Ribeira de Iguape, sul do Estado de São Paulo. Constitui uma das áreas cársticas menos estudadas da região do ponto de vista geomorfológico e geoespeleológico. Dentre as feições mais notáveis estão o Vale Cego da Tapagem, a Gruta da Tapagem (Caverna do Diabo), grandes depressões poligonais e depósitos de tufas. Este trabalho buscou o entendimento da configuração do relevo cárstico da SAL a partir de um mapeamento morfológico de detalhe baseado em fotointerpretação, modelos de terreno, morfometriae zoneamento morfológico. O estudo geoespeleológico da Gruta da Tapagem foi feito a partir da investigação morfológica em planta e seção transversal, correlacionando com a estrutura geológica e topografia. A área cárstica ocupa 46,11% do mármore, o restante é dominado por processos fluviais típicos. O sistema apresenta recarga hidrológica mista, porém em sua maior parte autogênica (82%). A água do carste é drenada por bacias distintas, que têm o rio Pardo como nível de base, no setor sudoeste e o rio Ribeira no setor nordeste da lente carbonática. A análise na escala 1:25.000 permitiu identificar três unidades morfológicas, os vales fluviais, o carste poligonal e o vale cego da Tapagem. O carste poligonal é a feição predominante, em planta constitui um mosaico de polígonos composto por 53 depressões poligonais, em geral amplase delimitadas por divisores e cones cársticos. Representam à fonte de recarga do aqüífero cárstico que drena em direção as unidades de vales fluviais instaladas sobre o mármore. As direções predominantes NE-SW e NW-SE, bem marcadas nas redes de drenagem, arranjo espacial das depressões fechadas, estão relacionadas, respectivamente, aos planos de foliação do mármore e aos diques básicos mesozóicos e fraturas associadas. A dissecação do relevo e o desenvolvimento da porosidade secundária do mármore se deram de forma mais intensa na área que tem o rio Ribeira como nível de base. Neste setor se desenvolvem vales mais entalhados, depressões de maior amplitude e feições marcantes como o vale cego do rio Tapagem. O vale cego sugere uma captura de drenagem pelo desenvolvimento da Gruta da Tapagem em direção ao vale fluvial do rio das Ostras, acarretando no entalhamento de um sistema subterrâneo ímpar no planalto carbonático. A Gruta da Tapagem está inserida no flanco noroeste da sinforma do mármoree localmente ocorre um anticlinal, onde próximo do sumidouro as camadas mergulham para NW e do meio para ressurgência para SE. Quimicamente os carbonatos da caverna foram classificados como dolomitos e dolomitoscalcíticos. Quatro diques de diabásio mesozóicos cortam a caverna de forma quase perpendicular e foram rompidos durante sua evolução. A caverna apresenta uma morfologia meandrante em planta, com 1,3 de sinuosidade, e predomínio de cânions subterrâneos vadosos e salões de abatimento, em seção transversal. Os dados estruturais indicam que o condicionamento estrutural da caverna se dá principalmente pelo bandamento do mármore, fraturas NW-SE, pelo gradiente hidráulico regional e por mudanças pontuais no gradiente hidráulico geradas por obliteração do conduto a partir de processos de abatimento. / The Serra do André Lopes (SAL) constitutes a carbonate dolomitic plateau developed in Tapagem Marble (Açungui Group - Mesoproterozoic) located in the upper valley of the Ribeira de Iguape River, in the south of the State of São Paulo. It is one of the least studied karst areas in the region. Its most notable features include the Tapagem Blind Valley, the Tapagem Cave (Devil\'s Cave), extensive polygonal depressions and tufa deposits. This study sought to understand the configuration of the karst landforms of the SAL through detailed morphological mapping based on photointerpretation, terrain models, morphometry and morphological zoning. The geospeleological study of the Tapagem Cave was conducted based on a plan view and cross-section morphological investigation, correlating this with geological structure and topography, on which this study also focused. The karst area occupies 46.11% of the marble, the remainder being dominated by typical fluvial processes. The system shows mixed hydrological recharge, although most of this is autogenic (82%). The karst water is drained by different basins, which have the Pardo River as a base level in the southwestern sector, and the Ribeira River in the northeastern sector of the carbonate body. Analysis on a scale of 1:25,000 made it possible to identify three morphological units, namely: river valleys, the polygonal karst and the Tapagem blind valley. The polygonal karst is the predominant feature, constituting, in plan view, a mosaic of polygons composed of 53 polygonal depressions, generally ample and delimited by water divides and karst cones. These represent the source of recharge of the karst aquifer, which drains in the direction of river valley units installed upon the marble. The predominant directions of NE-SW and NW-SE, well marked in drainage networks and the spatial arrangement of closed depressions are related, respectively, to marble foliation planes and basic Mesozoic dikes and associated fractures. Dissection of the landscape and development of secondary porosity of the marble came about in a more intense manner in the area that has the Ribeira River as its base level. In this sector, more deeply cut valleys developed, as well as depressions of greater amplitude and such notable features as the blind valley of the Tapagem River. The blind valley suggests drainage capture through development of the Tapagem Cave, in the direction of the Ostras River valley, resulting in the carving out of an unmatched subterranean system on the carbonate plateau. The Tapagem Cave lies on the northwestern flank of the marble synform and, locally, an anticline occurs where, in the vicinity of the sinkhole, layers dip to the NW and from the middle for resurgence to the SE. Chemically, the cave carbonates were classified as dolomites and calcareous dolomites. Four Mesozoic diabase dikes cut through the cave in an almost perpendicular manner and were ruptured during their evolution. In plan view, the cave shows meandering morphology, with a sinuosity of 1.3, and a predominance of vadose underground canyons and breakdown chambers, in transverse section. The data indicate that the cave structure is principally conditioned by banding of the marble and NW-SE fractures, as well as the regional hydraulic gradient and localized changes in the hydraulic gradient generated by obliteration of the conduit as a result of subsidence processes.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T19:59:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Luciana Alves dos Santos.pdf: 1192387 bytes, checksum: a6033261901e26c73d9420873a324efa (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-04-23 / Secretaria da Educação do Estado de São Paulo / This research comes as a challenge made the criticism that, at one point, refers to the novel The Cave, by Jose Saramago, as a lower reading and pamphlet. The writer, in turn, engaged in intellectual discussions and presents on Social Forums, corroborates the statements to sharpen the criticism. Motivated by this clash of ideas, we began the search with a timely reflection on the work of writer and intellectual, with emphasis on theoretical reflections on Edward Said on the issue and seeking to study these two concepts in the perspective of approximation. The development of this work goes towards building relationships between the theoretical research and fictional text elected corpus of research. Thus, our analysis establishes a dialogue between Cipriano Algor, a character in the novel, and the figure of the writer-intellectual as metaphor in the text. The research hypotheses are tested, verifying the awakening of consciousness as a possible to look at for the poetic text and the concept of intellectuality that is built. The second case study relates to the symbolic presence of mythical and utopian spaces associated to the basic concept of literature in contemporary society. The contributions of this work for literary studies is in the possibility to discuss, once again, the dimension of the poetic word that, to if disclosing, leaves to escape his intellectuality and reflects what Said presents as notion of the responsibility, not politics, not social, but human. The novel, to retake in its narrative, the metaphor of clay, puts your reader as a character inserted in the text and proposes to him a scaling that makes reflect itself, parallel, as first and third person, doing an exercise of self-knowledge and self-criticism that offers a new form of existence / A presente pesquisa nasce como um desafio formulado pela crítica que, em certo momento, refere-se ao romance A Caverna, de José Saramago, como escritura inferior e panfletária. O escritor, por sua vez, envolvido em discussões intelectuais e marcando presença em Fóruns Sociais, corrobora para aguçar os pronunciamentos da crítica. Motivados por esse embate de ideias, iniciamos a pesquisa com uma reflexão pontual sobre o trabalho do escritor e do intelectual, com destaque às reflexões teóricas de Edward Said sobre a questão e buscando estudar esses dois conceitos numa perspectiva de aproximação. O desenvolvimento do trabalho caminha no sentido de construir relações entre os pressupostos teóricos da pesquisa e o texto ficcional eleito como corpus da investigação. Assim, nossa análise estabelece um diálogo entre Cipriano Algor, personagem do romance, e a figura do escritor-intelectual como ser metaforizado no texto. As hipóteses da pesquisa são testadas, verificando-se o despertar da consciência como um olhar possível para a poética do texto e o conceito de intelectualidade que se constrói. A segunda hipótese trabalhada relaciona-se à presença simbólica de espaços míticos e utópicos associados ao conceito básico do literário na contemporaneidade. A contribuição desse trabalho para os estudos literários situa-se na possibilidade de se discutir, mais uma vez, a dimensão da palavra poética que, ao se auto revelar, deixa escapar sua intelectualidade e reflete o que Said busca conceituar como responsabilidade, não política, não social, mas humana. O romance, ao resgatar em sua narrativa, a metáfora do barro, coloca seu leitor como personagem inserida na obra e lhe propõe um redimensionamento que o faz espelhar-se, concomitantemente, em primeira e terceira pessoas, realizando um exercício de autoconhecimento e autocrítica que lhe oferece uma forma renovada de existência

Le mythe de la caverne de Platon qui ouvre le livre VII de La République, plonge ses racines dans l’héritage spirituel et immémorial de l’humanité. Les multiples interprétations qui en ont été données, ont, chacune, mis en lumière un aspect particulier du mythe platonicien. Ainsi, le sens du mythe de la caverne n’est pas invariable ; bien au contraire, il est sujet au changement, car la difficulté d’interprétation qui le caractérise, ouvre la voie à une forte variabilité de la signification à donner à chacun des symboles et à la façon dont ces derniers se définissent les uns par rapport aux autres. En conséquence, la signification originale du mythe de la caverne échappe, de fait et depuis toujours, à toute la tradition philosophique interprétative ultérieure ; c’est pourquoi Heidegger a réinvesti massivement ce récit, en sautant par-dessus toutes les interprétations antérieures, afin de nous en proposer une approche originaire. Toutefois, est-il raisonnable d’affirmer que l’interprétation originaire de Heidegger donne le fin mot du sens initial du mythe ? Notre recherche se propose donc de démontrer, au contraire, que le mythe de la caverne recouvre une signification platonicienne originale qui n’a jamais été entièrement développée et exploitée par les interprètes de ce dernier. En effet, si le livre VII de La République constitue le commentaire original de Platon vis-à-vis du mythe de la caverne, ce commentaire natif platonicien pourrait recéler tous les philosophèmes métaphysiques, épistémologiques et politiques nécessaires pour éclairer, puissamment et à nouveaux frais, la symbolique du mythe de la caverne. De facto, s’en dégagerait-il une signification platonicienne originale et surtout inédite qui pourrait soit se rapprocher du sens de l’interprétation originaire de Heidegger, soit s’en éloigner de façon irréductible ? / The myth of Plato’s cave which opens Book VII of the Republic, has its roots in the age-old intellectual heritage of humanity. The various interpretations of Plato’s cave, have, each, elucidated a particular element of the Platonic myth. Thus, the meaning of the myth of the cave is not invariable ; on the contrary, it is subject to change as the particular difficulty of its interpretation paves the way for a high degree of variability in the meaning of each symbol and how it is defined in relation to the others. In fact and from the outset, the original signification of the myth of the cave has eluded the entire interpretive philosophical tradition that follows it; this is why Heidegger massively reinvested in this tale in bypassing all previous interpretations in order to offer an originary approach. But can one reasonably assert that Heidegger’s originary interpretation gives the final word on the original meaning of the myth ? This thesis intends to show, on the contrary, that the myth of the cave holds an original Platonic meaning that has never been completely developed and elaborated by its interpreters. Indeed, if Book VII of the Republic constitutes Plato’s original commentary on the myth of the cave, this native Platonic commentary could hold all of the metaphysical, epistemological and political philosophemes necessary to powerfully elucidate the symbolism of the myth of the cave in a fresh light. Would this in fact draw out an original and unprecedented Platonic meaning ? And would it approach Heidegger’s originary interpretation, or distance itself from it irreducibly ?

Submitted by Sara Ribeiro (sara.ribeiro@ucb.br) on 2018-04-13T18:22:16Z No. of bitstreams: 1 MarildaTeixeiraMendesTese2017.pdf: 2454416 bytes, checksum: 21ba7f1451109a8a55c62e1762f0d45c (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Sara Ribeiro (sara.ribeiro@ucb.br) on 2018-04-13T18:26:12Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 MarildaTeixeiraMendesTese2017.pdf: 2454416 bytes, checksum: 21ba7f1451109a8a55c62e1762f0d45c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-13T18:26:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MarildaTeixeiraMendesTese2017.pdf: 2454416 bytes, checksum: 21ba7f1451109a8a55c62e1762f0d45c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-02-27 / The practice of caving, as an activity from the perspective of leisure, performed in a cave environment, opened possibilities for its understanding. Such a practice contributes to a more comprehensive view of physical adventure activity in nature in cave environments. This study allowed to dialogue with cavers and environmental agents, to understand through the quotidian of speleological practices, the interrelationships between themselves and the cave environment. It is also intended to bring new contributions to the study of socioenvironmental relations and leisure activity in caves, with a careful look that may have significant and revealing meanings in relation to the cave environment and its environment. The study aimed to investigate whether caving is perceived as physical activity of adventure and leisure by its practitioners. This is a qualitative research, developed with the Peter Lund Speleogrupo and the Association of Environmental Agents of the Vale do Perua??u with 30 individuals. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews, processed in IRAMUTEQ and the similarity analysis made. The results were commented on the structural approach of six axes, and later, the analysis of the corpus of the interviews will be presented, based on the similarity analysis. The results analyzed were structured based on interviews. The first axis was related to the meanings attributed to leisure during the practice of caving. The second axis referred to the understanding of caving while physical activity or sport. The third axis dealt with the relationship of the body with nature and with other bodies in the practice of Caving. The fourth axis referred to the speleological practices that are configured as potentialities for the learning of environmental education. The fifth axis addressed how the caving practitioner relates to nature. The sixth axis addressed whether speleological practices intervene directly in the well-being of its practitioners in the relationship between human being and nature. The results showed that caving promotes the well-being of its practitioners in the relationship between human beings and nature. It revealed a relationship mediated by the presence of natural elements. Given the peculiar characteristics of the cave environment, nature was shown as an important partner in promoting physical and mental well-being, perceived through bodily senses and introspection with the cave. It became evident that caving is an activity that restores the health, well-being, knowledge and relationship of the body to nature. It was concluded that caving is a physical activity of multidisciplinary adventure, which has man as a major relation of valorization and preservation of the cave environment. Caving while physical activity is a pleasurable activity of leisure, which promotes a dialogue with the energies existing in the caveman environment. Caving is much more than caving as sports practice or research, caving establishes social relationships, exchanges of spiritual and religious experiences. / A pr??tica do caving, como atividade sob a ??tica do lazer, realizada em ambiente de caverna, abriu possibilidades para o seu entendimento. Tal pr??tica contribui para uma vis??o mais abrangente de atividade f??sica de aventura na natureza em ambientes de caverna. Este estudo permitiu dialogar com espele??logos e agentes ambientais, compreender por meio do cotidiano das pr??ticas espeleol??gicas, as inter-rela????es entre eles mesmos e o ambiente de caverna. Tem como intuito tamb??m trazer novas contribui????es para o estudo das rela????es socioambientais e atividade de lazer em cavernas, com um olhar cuidadoso, que possa vir a ter significados importantes e reveladores na rela????o com o ambiente cavern??cola e o seu entorno. O estudo teve como objetivo investigar se o caving ?? percebido como atividade f??sica de aventura e de lazer pelos seus praticantes. Trata-se de uma pesquisa de abordagem qualitativa, desenvolvida junto ao Espeleogrupo Peter Lund e a Associa????o de Agentes Ambientais do Vale do Perua??u com 30 indiv??duos. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas, processados no IRAMUTEQ e a an??lise de similitude feita. Os resultados foram comentados a partir da abordagem estrutural de seis eixos, e posteriormente, apresentar-se-?? a an??lise do corpus das entrevistas, com base na analise da similitude. Os resultados analisados foram estruturados com base nas entrevistas. O primeiro eixo foi relativo aos significados atribu??dos ao lazer durante a pr??tica do caving. O segundo eixo referiu-se ?? compreens??o do caving enquanto atividade f??sica ou esporte. O terceiro eixo tratou da rela????o do corpo com a natureza e com outros corpos na pr??tica do Caving. O quarto eixo referiu-se ??s pr??ticas espeleol??gicas que configuram-se como potencialidades para o aprendizado da educa????o ambiental. O quinto eixo abordou como o praticante do caving relaciona com a natureza. O sexto eixo abordou se pr??ticas espeleol??gicas interv??m diretamente no bem-estar de seus praticantes na rela????o ser humano e natureza. Os resultados encontrados mostraram que o caving promove o bem-estar de seus praticantes na rela????o ser humano e natureza. Revelou uma rela????o mediada pela presen??a de elementos naturais. Dadas as caracter??sticas peculiares do ambiente cavern??cola, mostrou-se a natureza como uma importante parceira na promo????o do bem-estar f??sico e mental, percebidos por meio dos sentidos corporais e da introspec????o com a caverna. Ficou evidente que o caving ?? uma atividade que restaura a sa??de, o bem-estar, o conhecimento e a rela????o do corpo com a natureza. Concluiu-se que o caving ?? uma atividade f??sica de aventura multidisciplinar, que tem o homem como rela????o maior de valoriza????o e preserva????o do ambiente cavern??cola. O caving, enquanto atividade f??sica ?? uma atividade prazerosa de lazer, que promove um di??logo com as energias existentes no ambiente cavern??cola. O caving ?? muito mais do que espeleologia como pr??tica esportiva ou pesquisa, o caving estabelece rela????es sociais, trocas de experi??ncias espirituais e religiosas.