This thesis comprises a regional synthesis of the diversity of the human experience in West Central Scotland during the Mesolithic period (c.7875-c.4200BCE). The research area incorporates the modern local authorities of Ayrshire, Dunbartonshire, Glasgow City, Inverclyde, Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire. The regional profile has been constructed from a comparison of the lithic assemblages from mainland coastal and inland sites in a transect (c.2550km2) from Ballantrae and Girvan on the Ayrshire coast inland to Loch Doon, South Ayrshire and beyond to the Daer Valley in South Lanarkshire. Three other sites from South Lanarkshire outwith the transect have also been included in the study, namely Climpy, Powbrone and Weston. Reference has also been made to sites on the islands of the Firth of Clyde and at Loch Lomondside. The archaeological and environmental evidence from the Ayrshire coast has been considered, supporting the interpretation of probable sedentism at Girvan during the Late Mesolithic. The theoretical structure can be distilled into two main themes, namely variation and technology which are folded into a cohesive framework by reference to the philosophies of Gilles Deleuze, and in particular his 1968 work Difference and Repetition. The concepts of repetition, difference and becoming have given meaning to variation as something more profound than a mere contradiction. In this thesis, these concepts have been recast to incorporate the chaîne opératoire. Firstly, variation in people and things are forged in the social dimension through repetition. Secondly, technology is understood as inseparable from the agent, where the people and things are both subject and object, and things may be understood as detached parts of people. It is by conjoining these enhanced constructs of variation and technology that people and things as technology inscribe the landscape to create a meaningful taskscape; referring to the notion proposed by Ingold in 1993. These concepts as becoming have been used to explore notions of identity, group identity, social boundaries and taskscape as inseparable qualities of Mesolithic lifeways. Detailed technological analysis of the surface collections and excavated assemblages comprised within this study has confirmed the continuity of lithic practice across the greater part of the Mesolithic period. Subtle nuances have been recorded in technological choices made, and also in the composition of the lithic assemblages. The main variation lies in the choice of raw materials. The distinctions are more profound than the dominant use of flint at the coast and chert inland. Marked variations in both the colour and original cortical surface of raw materials are identified suggesting differentiated resources across the landscape and different groups of hunter-gatherers. The presence of flint at the inland sites is interpreted as representative of pioneer incursions. The variations in the assemblages of West Central Scotland, together with the cautious use of ethnographic analogy allow consideration of the cosmological significance of raw materials and the materiality of stone. The notion that the use of specific raw materials is culturally proscribed has been instrumental in the interpretation of hunter-gatherers groups who are either predominantly practising sedentism at the coastal lagoonal habitats of Girvan, or creating new group identities and adopting more mobile lifeways inland.

This thesis examines the inhabitation of the lower Exe valley, between the Mesolithic and the Early Bronze Age through the evidence of a series of surface lithic scatters. Research draws on recent confident approaches to surface lithic scatters which view them as key data for understanding the inhabitation of prehistoric landscapes. Theoretically it draws on the dwelling perspective and proposes that both the contents of lithic scatters (the stone tools and debitage of which they are composed), and their contexts (the locations in which they are found) are inseparable parts of the same whole, and are implicated in the processes through which prehistoric populations came to understood and create their worlds. Research focuses on a small study area centred on the lower Exe valley, Devon. It is one of the most significant prehistoric landscapes in lowland southwest Britain and includes a large surface lithic collection spanning the Mesolithic to the Early Bronze Age. It also contains evidence for a number of contemporary monuments. Several methodologies are applied to the contents and contexts of the study area’s lithic assemblages. Methodologies utilised include lithic analysis, landscape phenomenology, LIDAR and vertical aerial photography, extensive geophysical survey and targeted excavation. Four themes are explored in relation to the study area’s archaeological record: • The character and composition of inhabitation • The temporality of inhabitation • Biographies of place • Scales of mobility and contact Results indicate the valley floor and its immediate western edge as a particular focus of activity during all periods. Against the background of increasing intensity and extent of inhabitation between the Mesolithic and Early Bronze Age, the repeated occupation of persistent places is noted. Repeated occupation of these locales is seen as key to the development of biographies of place which in turn act as anchors for subsequent acts of inhabitation and monument building. This thesis combines the analysis and interpretation of previously unpublished surface lithic assemblages, with the results of new archaeological fieldwork. At a regional level it has enhanced understanding of the prehistory of lowland Devon. In a wider context it offers a new theoretical and methodological approach to studying surface lithic scatters, and contributes to on going debates in landscape archaeology.

In the late 20th century, historical research on the 1632 Battle of Lützen, a major engagement of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648), came to a dead end after 150 years of mostly unfruitful discussions. This thesis examines the battle’s military material culture, including historical accounts and physical evidence in the form of archaeological finds from the battlefield to provide new insight into the battle’s events, but also to develop a methodology which allows a comparison between two very different sources: the eyewitness account and the ‘lead bullet.’ To achieve this aim, the development of 17th century firearms is highlighted through an assessment of historical sources and existing weapons and by an evaluation of various collections of ‘lead bullets’ from Lützen and other archaeological sites, thus providing a working baseline for interpreting bullet distribution patterns on the battlefield. The validity of bullet distribution patterns is also dependant on the deposit process during the battle and metal detector survey methodologies, which also provides vital information for battlefield surveys in general. In an overarching methodology, statements from battle eyewitnesses are evaluated and compared to bullet distribution patterns, in conjunction with the historic landscape, equipment and tactics. Together, these ultimately lead to a better understanding of the battle and its historic narrative, by asking why reported events actually did not happen at Lützen. This last element is also important for understand the reliability of early modern battle accounts in general. Overall, a more general aim of this case study has been to provide a better insight into the wider potentials of early modern battle research in Europe.

This thesis is a study of the articulation of power in Scotland c. 500-1000 AD using an analysis of manifestations of ‘symbolic wealth’, particularly sculpted stones. In studying the power structures of early medieval Scotland, both textual and archaeological evidence must be considered. Documentary evidence for Scotland is poor, but comparison can be made with Ireland, which has relatively rich textual evidence. The archaeological evidence of the early medieval period in Scotland is considerable, but has an uneasy relationship with the textual sources. Previous attempts to understand the power structures of early medieval Scotland through contemporary descriptions, such as those existing for the monastery at Iona, have resulted in constructed ideal types. These ideal types (e.g. for monasteries, emporia, civitates) have hindered the recognition of difference and variety in early medieval settlement. Within this thesis, relevant documentary evidence is considered alongside the archaeology with the aim of exploring variability in contemporary perceptions and perceived hierarchies of places of power. This research recognises that control of resources, material and physical, is a crucial aspect of power relations in the early medieval period and approaches power by looking at the type and distribution of material culture and how it indicates changes in ideology and politics. Aspects of material culture invested with social meaning are termed ‘symbolic wealth’. Traditional manifestations of symbolic wealth, such as imported pottery, glass vessels and fine metalworking are considered. The main body of evidence comes from a new methodological approach to sculpted stones that argues sculpture can be ranked by virtue of the relative investment in its creation process. This, in turn, indicates the degree to which power and investment were centralised. The methodology evaluates the relative time involved in the steps of the creation process of individual monuments.

The thesis investigates whether contemporary policy and practice support formal and informal learning in the field of archaeology. Also, the assumption that multi-sector partnerships broaden community participation in heritage activities is interrogated. The multi-method comparative research model applied both empirical and qualitative methods to three case studies in the Midlands of Britain. Each of these projects gained funding to exhibit archaeology to the public during the course of the research. The policies and practices of the key individuals in the partnerships were investigated through taped interviews, and the data was analysed using cognitive mapping (Tolman, 1948, Buzan, 1993). Data about the visitors were gathered through questionnaire surveys, taped oral accounts, and observational studies. The interests, concerns and agenda of the principle stakeholders were compared. The results indicated that the role of the volunteers was crucial to the success and sustainability of the projects. However, some volunteers felt that they were weaker partners, and this was linked to a distinction between amateurs and professionals. The power of local authorities in heritage partnerships and their conflicting roles as developers and guardians of the archaeological heritage are questioned. Ways to facilitate participatory partnerships are suggested. The research draws on Foucault's definition of discourse, and Bourdieu's human capital theories and his concept of habitus and distinction. The links between informal and formal learning are rarely researched and theorised, but this study identifies how archaeologists, acting as "cultural intermediaries" (Bourdieu, 1984: 14), can create and sustain learning opportunities for adults, collapsing some of the traditional hierarchies between popular entertainment, community knowledge, and intellectual knowledge. The thesis places learning in archaeology within the theory of a structured taxonomy of learning (Biggs, 1971, Biggs and Collis, 1982).

This study investigates the role of gender and, within that, class in changing English dining styles in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The period c.1750-1900 has been chosen to cover a major period for dining change, as it is during this time that service à la Russe superseded service à la Française as the dominant formal dining style. This change has been much discussed by food historians and sociologists, but the materiality of change has not hitherto been placed within an archaeologically-informed framework. Equally, while the artefacts of dining are among the most frequently recorded finds in domestic contexts in the historical period, archaeologists have rarely considered them in the context of long-term dining development. Drawing on data from country houses, collections, and published material on middle class and elite settings, this thesis investigates the hypothesis that dining change was driven by women, specifically middle class wives; and that dining-related ephemera must therefore be understood in its relationship with women. It also proposes a narrative of stylistic change using historical archaeological paradigms, introducing the concept of a third, clearly identifiable stage between à la Française and à la Russe. After introducing the data sets and giving a background to dining in the historical period, the first part of the study uses table plans and etiquette, together with depictions of dishes, food moulds and experimental archaeology in the form of historic cookery, to demonstrate the way in which the process of change was driven by middle class women. It argues that à la Russe suited gender and class-specific needs and that, far from being emulative, as has hitherto been assumed, the adaption of à la Russe broke with aristocratic habits. It proposes that a transitional stage in dining style should be recognised, and interprets food design and serving style in the light of this intermediate phase. The setting of dining is explored next, with data on dining décor, plates and physical location interpreted to support the conclusions of the previous section. Following this, the impact of change on food preparation will be used to demonstrate that à la Russe was the result of changes in underlying mentalities which also affected household structure and organisation. The ways women used the materiality of food, including cookbooks, to negotiate status will be demonstrated. A final section will broaden the discussion of gender, class and food. Tea has been chosen as a case study for the further testing of the conclusions drawn from the study of dinner for two reasons: firstly it was, from its introduction, immediately associated with women; and, secondly, tea-related artefacts are among the commonest of archaeological finds, but are rarely understood as engendered and active objects in a domestic context.

This research aims to evaluate the construction of Turkey and the “Oriental other” in Colonial Britain at the turn of the 20th century through a post-colonial theoretical perspective presented through the analysis of various data regarding the 'Aegean & Hittite Collections' gallery at the Public Museum Liverpool (now World Museum) from 1931 till the Blitz of June 1941. The sources include undocumented archives such as field notes, postcards and correspondence and what remains of the 'Garstang Hittite Collection' held at National Museums Liverpool (NML). A full investigation into how the collection was put together through curatorial and archaeological methods, what it consisted of, why these specific objects were chosen and what value were attributed by the collector and curators of the time along with gallery pals and visitors’’ guide book will allow for valid reconstruction and re-interpretation of the “Aegean & Hittite Gallery”. Furthermore I shall also explore the value of displaying a substantial collection of Hittite casts at a time when such objects were tools for Classical and Neo-Classical artistic education, understood by contemporary British society to be the pinnacle of artistic achievement. This Neo-Hittite imagery had no artistic value attributed to it and was displayed in a context of educational value for the lower social classes who could not perceive the ‘high’ arts involved in Classical Greek culture that had been adopted by aristocratic Britain as the paradigm for its own colonial identity; popularly reinforced nationally through various media, including exhibitions such as this, and also internationally through neo-Classical architectural design e.g. The Liverpool Acropolis. My thesis also relates the above premises with the life and work of Prof. John Garstang, his role within the Institute of Archaeology in Liverpool, his contribution to the “Aegean & Hittite Collections' gallery, his role as archaeological agent for private collectors, his work ethics and methodologies and his later role as establisher of British archaeological institutes in Jerusalem, Amman and Ankara. Academic reception of Hittite archaeology in Britain and the newly-formed nation-state of Turkey following the abolition of Ottoman rule in 1923 will also be considered especially regarding Garstang’s standing as a British archaeologist contributing to the Kemâlist Turkish capital city of Ankara in 1947. This research will place the Hittite Gallery’s contents and displays within their archaeological, cultural and intellectual contexts but also aims to explore the political use of contemporaneous Hittite archaeological negotiation both in Britain and Turkey at such a tumultuous time bound together through the work of Prof. John Garstang.

The thesis explores themes of settlement location, settlement form and settlement mobility from the Late Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age in north-east Powys and Shropshire. The study utilises existing finds and monument data, and incorporates new data from targeted field survey and excavation. It incorporates comparative evidence from other regions of Britain and detailed comparative data from studies in neighbouring regions. The study examines the evidence for settlement sites, the distribution of lithics in the landscape and the potential relationship between round barrows and settlement. The relationship between metalwork and settlement is examined as is the evidence for the presence of land division. A potential greater frequency of activity in the vicinity of lowland ring ditches is suggested through lithic distributions within a transitory pattern of occupation. This is supported with new excavation evidence for ephemeral settlement activity. At a broader level a greater intensity of activity is apparent in lowland gravel terraces than in neighbouring wetland areas of Shropshire and that the study area is part of a wider region characterised by low lithic densities in contrast to neighbouring regions to the south. Subtle spatial separations may have existed between settlement activity and monuments and the siting of monuments may have reflected existing axes of movement through the landscape. The distribution of upland monuments suggests that activities may have been relatively focussed and localised, whilst close conceptual links may have been maintained with lowland and distant landscapes. The distribution of metalwork emphasises rivers, floodplains and wetland contexts which may have been at the margins of settlement space. At a broader level the presence of metalwork in lowland landscapes serves to complement limited evidence for Middle Bronze Age occupation and places Late Bronze Age hilltop enclosures into a wider context. Targeted excavation has provided new dating evidence from pit alignment features in the study area which may indicate localised areas of land division closely post-dated ring ditch monuments in the Early Bronze Age. This may have implications for the interpretation of similar land divisions in other regions.

This study aims to contribute to the discussion of late Byzantine urban centres by researching four important cities for which written, archaeological and numismatic sources are available, and by creating a profile for each. Conclusions drawn from the study of Monemvasia, Ioannina, Arta and Thessalonike have then been used to draw a wider picture about late Byzantine cities in general. The period 1204-1460 saw the territorial collapse of the Byzantine Empire, followed by its partial reconstitution and then final fall. The political fragmentation of the Balkans and an increasingly integrated Mediterranean economy placed the Byzantine city at the heart of the politics and the economy of its region, and connected it to the wider world more than at any time since the seventh century. The profile of cities such as Monemvasia, Ioannina, Arta and Thessalonike was shaped by their function both as centres of wealth and international trade, and the residence of the imperial administration and the provincial elite. The study is divided into four chapters, each dedicated to a particular city. Each chapter analyses the politics, built environment, society, population, privileges and economy of the individual urban unit, and combines each section to draw conclusions. The concluding chapter of the thesis highlights common trends and developments in the socio-economic profiles of the four cities, and makes more general observations about late Byzantine urban civilization.

The architectural analysis of archaeologically known royal palaces in Egyptological studies has shown that ancient Egyptian royal palaces with similar setting might have served similar function. The differences recognizable in the few royal structures known from the Middle Kingdom onwards must reflect differences in the conception that was at the basis of their construction and the activities performed within each site. Such architectural variety corresponds to the complexity of the terminology associated with Egyptian palaces. There are at least five terms for “palace” that have been identified in the Egyptian vocabulary - 'h, pr-'3, pr-nswt, h_nw and stp-s3 – the exact meaning of the majority of which needs to be specified. The present lexicographical study aims to understand what each word would have been for by analyzing its use in different contexts: private titles, official inscriptions or literary texts. The final attempt of this work is to identify a possible correspondence between such terminology and the surviving structures. As an example of a possible application of the lexicographical study to the archaeological evidence, the word ‘h, referring in texts to a royal structure with ritual function, might be related to palaces with a tripartite and axial ordering comparable with temples.