A side effect of generating an immune system for defense against invading pathogens is the potential to develop destructive cells that recognize self-tissues. Typically, through the "education" of developing immune cells, the organism inactivates potentially self-destructive cells, resulting in what is called self-tolerance. I proposed to explore the molecular mechanisms responsible for the induction and maintenance of tolerance. Our lab has developed a model of induced immune tolerance to skin and islet allografts utilizing a donor-specific transfusion of spleen cells and a brief course of anti-CD40L antibody. Because the difficulty in isolation of tolerant T cells from this system is prohibitive to performing large screens on these cells directly, I have chosen to study an in vitro CD4+Th1 cell line, A.E7, which can be made anergic via stimulation through the T cell receptor in the absence of costimulation. I hypothesized that anergized T cells upregulate genes that are responsible for the induction and maintenance of anergy and therefore exhibit a unique RNA expression profile. I have screened anergic cells using Affymetrix GeneChips and identified a small number of genes that are differentially expressed long-term in the anergic population compared to mock-stimulated and productively activated controls. The results have been confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR for each of the candidates. One of the most promising, the zinc-finger transcription factor Egr-2, was verified to be expressed long-term by western blotting, demonstrating perfect correlation between Egr-2 protein expression and the anergic phenotype. Silencing Egr-2 gene expression by siRNA in A.E7 T cells prior to anergy induction rescues the cells from the inability to phosphorylate ERK-1 and ERK-2 and also results in increased proliferation in response to antigen rechallenge. In this study I report that Egr-2 is specifically expressed long-term in anergic cells, protein expression correlates inversely with responsiveness to antigen rechallenge, and that Egr-2 is required for the full induction of anergy in T cell clones.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-12-06T23:47:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Uma das principais causas de falência terapêutica é o surgimento de cepas resistentes aos inibidores da transcriptase reversa (IRT) e da protease (IP). O processo de replicação do vírus HIV – 1 promove alta taxa de mutação devido aos erros inerentes à atividade da transcriptase reversa. Portanto, é comum em indivíduos sob tratamento e com carga viral detectável, o surgimento e seleção de cepas resistentes. O Estado de São Paulo é considerado como um dos epicentros da epidemia de Aids no Brasil, sendo que o município de Santos possui um dos maiores portos da América Latina e devido às rotas de comércio internacional atua como introdutor e difusor do HIV – 1 no sudeste brasileiro, com uma alta incidência de infecção, alta prevalência da resistência antirretroviral primária e de alta prevalência de vírus recombinante B/F. Tem sido também reconhecido que a falência virológica ao tratamento antirretroviral é alta nesta cidade, entretanto, não existem dados recentes e abrangentes a respeito da caracterização genotípica, da freqüência dos subtipos e resistência primária do HIV – 1. O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar os perfis virológico e imunológico e a resistência primária em pacientes virgens de tratamento aos medicamentos antirretrovirais e os fatores relacionados à falência virológica após 48 semanas de HAART nesta população. Foram analisados os prontuários dos pacientes recém diagnosticados e cadastrados no ano de 2000 e 2001, num total de 594 pacientes. Destes pacientes estudados no período citado, apenas 315 realizaram os exames de quantificação da carga viral e a contagem da subpopulações dos linfócitos TCD4+/TCD8+ no momento do seu diagnóstico. Posteriormente dos 315 pacientes foram selecionados 80 virgens de tratamento aos antirretrovirais, para a realização do exame de genotipagem, no qual foram comparados os perfis demográficos do HIV – 1 entre os indivíduos com sucesso virológico versus falência virológica após 48 semanas de iniciação aos antirretrovirais. Os pacientes que realizaram a genotipagem (N=80), foram divididos em dois grupos: Grupo 1 (N=43) são os pacientes que após a introdução do tratamento aos antirretrovirais não conseguiram atingir os níveis de quantificação de carga viral abaixo de 50 cópias/mL, isto é a carga viral se manteve detectável após seis meses de tratamento. Grupo 2 (N=37) são os pacientes que conseguiram se manter com os níveis de quantificação da carga viral, indetectáveis após seis meses de tratamento. Todos os indivíduos estudados iniciaram HAART, sendo que foram considerados aderentes aos antirretrovirais, de acordo com a frequência que obtiveram as suas medicações prescritas pelo médico e a partir de uma farmácia centralizada. O HIV - 1 foi seqüenciado na região pol a partir do plasma em amostras armazenadas a – 80° C, coletadas imediatamente antes do início do tratamento. Ao avaliar os pacientes (N=315) a contagem média das células TCD4+ foi de 320 células/µL. Destes pacientes 98 (31%) tinham TCD4+ menor que 200 células/µL, 69 (22%) TCD4+ entre 200 e 350 células/µL; 57 (18%) TCD4+ entre 350 e 500 células/µL e 91 (29%) com TCD4+ acima de 500 células/µL, mostrando a importância do diagnóstico. Em relação a carga viral a média foi de 180.000 cópias/ml e o “log” médio foi de 4,28. Ainda referente a quantificação da carga viral avaliou-se que 40,2% estavam, acima de 30.000 cópias/mL e 22% maior que 100.000 cópias/mL, indicando uma imunossupressão e mostrando a importância do diagnóstico precoce do vírus HIV-1. A determinação da contagem das subpopulações dos linfócitos TCD4+ e a quantificação da Carga viral do HIV – 1, ambos exames representam a pedra angular no acompanhamento, estadiamento e a avaliação da resposta terapêutica dos antirretrovirais. Deve-se considerar também que a determinação da contagem das subpopulações dos linfócitos TCD4+ é um indicador do estágio evolutivo da doença, bem como o determinante fundamental na terapêutica. Avaliar as condições imunológicas dos pacientes recém diagnosticados, que chegam ao serviço de referência em Aids de Santos, é de grande valia, no momento que inicia o tratamento médico, sendo justificado pelos resultados apresentados, no qual destacamos que 53% dos pacientes tinham contagem de TCD4+ menor que 350 células/µL do total estudado (N=315), indicando uma imunossupressão, mostrando nitidamente a importância do diagnóstico precoce pelo HIV-1, sabendo que, segundo os critérios do Consenso Nacional Brasileiro de tratamento para a infecção pelo vírus HIV -1, os mesmos já deveriam estar fazendo uso de medicações antirretrovirais. Quando analisamos a resistência primária dos pacientes do Grupo 1 (N=43) 21 (48,8%) comparada com o Grupo 2 (N=37) 6 (16,2%), ao longo de 48 semanas concluímos que os pacientes do grupo 1 por apresentarem maior prevalência de mutações relacionadas à resistência aos fármacos antirretrovirais prescritos (p<0,005), eles não conseguiram atingir os níveis de quantificação de carga viral abaixo de 50 cópias/mL, isto é, a carga viral se manteve detectável após seis meses de tratamento até final do estudo. Em relação às classes dos medicamentos antirretrovirais, os pacientes do grupo 1 e 2 apresentaram resistência de 16.2% aos IRTNN; 20% aos IRTN e 2,5% aos IP. Quanto a resistência de pelo menos duas classes de ARVs (IRTNN e IRTN) foram 5% e não foi observado nenhum paciente resistente as três classes de ARVs. Na determinação da prevalência dos subtipos do HIV – 1 baseada nas seqüências do gene pol, a classificação filogenética das seqüências puras foi de 80% do subtipo B e 7,5% F. Quanto as seqüências recombinantes B/F foi de 12,5% mostrando uma preocupação epidemiológica na cadeia de transmissão porque essas cepas recombinantes estão infectando novos indivíduos e predominando nos pacientes recém diagnosticados. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas basais observadas na carga viral e níveis de TCD4+ com relação aos antirretrovirais utilizados ou a demografia entre os 2 grupos, pacientes portadores de vírus resistentes e tipo selvagem. A prevalência de 33,7% de resistência primária aos antirretrovirais entre os pacientes foi considerada extremamente elevada nesta região, portanto, em regiões atípicas como a cidade de Santos, seria de grande valia apoiar o conceito de realizar exames de genotipagem antes de iniciar o tratamento antirretroviral, fato fundamental, efetivo e econômico para o serviço público, embora alguns indivíduos com resistência primária têm conseguido uma supressão viral empírica sob HAART, a estreita associação entre a resistência primária e falência virológica pode sugerir que essa resistência dificulte gradativamente a atividade dos antirretrovirais. / One of the main causes of therapeutic failure is the appearance of strains resistant to reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and protease (PI). The process of replication of HIV - 1 promotes high rate of mutation due to errors inherent in the activity of reverse transcriptase. Therefore, it is common in individuals under treatment and with detectable viral load, the appearance and selection of resistant strains. The State of São Paulo is considered one of the epicenters of the AIDS epidemic in Brazil, and the city of Santos has one of the biggest ports of Latin America and because the routes of international trade acts as a diffuser and introducer of HIV -1 in the Southeast Brazil, with a high incidence of infection, high prevalence of primary antiretroviral resistance and high prevalence of recombinant viruses B/F. It has also been recognized that virological failure to antiretroviral treatment is high in this city, however, there are no recent and comprehensive data on the genetic characterization of the frequency of subtypes and primary resistance of HIV–1. The objective of the study was to evaluate the virological and immunological profiles and primary resistance in patients naïve to antiretroviral drugs treatment and the factors related to virological failure after 48 weeks of HAART in this population. We analyzed the charts of newly diagnosed patients registered in 2000 and 2001, as a total of 594 patients. From these patients studied during the period cited, only 315 were tested for quantification of viral load and counts of lymphocyte subpopulations of CD4+T cells/+ TCD8 at the time of diagnosis. Later among the 315 patients were selected 80 naïve to antiretroviral treatment, for the test for genotyping, in which were compared the demographic profiles of HIV-1 among individuals with virological success versus virological failure after 48 weeks of initiation of antiretroviral. Patients in which we performed genotyping (n = 80) were divided into two groups: Group 1 (N=43) are the patients that after the introduction of antiretroviral treatment failed to achieve the quantification levels of viral load below 50 copies/mL, in other words, the viral load remained detectable after six months of treatment. Group 2 (N=37) patients who were able to remain with the quantification of viral load on undetectable levels after six months of treatment. All studied subjects started HAART, which were considered adherent to antiretroviral according to how often they obtained their medications prescribed by a doctor and from a centralized drugstore. The HIV-1 was sequenced in the pol region from plasma samples stored at – 176ºC, collected immediately before starting treatment. When evaluating the patients (N=315) the average cell count CD4+T cells was 320 cells/µL. 98 (31%) of these patients had CD4+T cells below 200 cells/µL, 69 (22%) CD4+T cells between 200 and 350 cells/µL, 57 (18%) CD4+T cells between 350 and 500 cells/µL and 91 (29%) with CD4+T cells above 500 cells/µL, showing the importance of diagnosis. In relation to the average viral load was 180,000 copies/mL and the "log" average was 4.28. Still concerning the quantification of viral load assessed that 40.2% were above 30,000 copies/mL and 22% higher than 100,000 copies/mL, indicating an immunosuppression and showing the importance of early diagnosis of HIV-1. The determination of the counts of lymphocyte subpopulations of CD4+T cells and quantification of viral load of HIV-1, both tests represent a cornerstone in monitoring, staging and assessment of antiretroviral therapeutic response. One should also consider that the determination of the counts of lymphocyte subpopulations of CD4+T cells is an indicator of the stage of the disease, and the decisive role in therapy. To evaluate the immunological conditions of patients newly diagnosed who come to the referral service on AIDS of Santos, is of great value in the moment you start the treatment, being justified by the results presented, in which is highlighted that 53% of patients had counting CD4+T cells below 350 cells/ul from the total studied (N=315), indicating a immunosuppression, showing clearly the importance of early diagnosis of HIV-1, knowing that according to the criteria of the Brazilian Consensus for the treatment of HIV-1 infection, they should already be using antiretroviral medications. When we analyze the primary resistance of the patients in Group 1 (N = 43) 21 (48.8%) compared with Group 2 (N = 37) 6 (16.2%) during over 48 weeks we conclude that group 1 patients, due to higher prevalence of mutations associated with resistance to antiretroviral drugs prescribed (p<0.005), failed to achieve the quantification of viral load below 50 copies/mL, in other words, viral load remained detectable after six months of treatment by the end of the study. Concerning the classes of antiretroviral drugs, patients in group 1 and 2 showed resistance of 16.2% to IRTNN; 20% to IRTN and 2.5% to PI. Regarding the resistance of at least two classes of ARVs (IRTNN and IRTN) were 5% and there was no studied patient resistant to at least two of the three classes of ARVs. In determining the prevalence of subtypes of HIV -1 based on the pol gene sequences, the phylogenetic classification of pure sequences was 80% of subtype B and 7.5% F. As the sequences recombinant B/F it was 12.5% showing a concern in the epidemiological chain of transmission because these recombinant strains are infecting new individuals and are predominant in newly diagnosed patients. No significant baseline differences were observed in viral load and levels of CD4 + T cells regarding the antiretroviral used or the demographics between the 2 groups, patients with resistant virus and patients with the wild type. The 33.7% prevalence of primary resistance to antiretroviral among patients was considered extremely high in this region, so as atypical regions in the city of Santos, would be of great value to support the concept of conducting examinations of genotyping before starting treatment antiretroviral, indeed essential, effective and economical for the public service, although some individuals with primary resistance have achieved an empirical viral suppression under HAART, the close association between primary resistance and virological failure may suggest that this resistance make the activity of antiretroviral gradually difficult. / FAPESP: 2004/15856-9 / BV UNIFESP: Teses e dissertações

T cell development in the thymus produces multiple lineages of cells, including conventional naïve CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, regulatory T cells, and innate T cells. Innate T cells encompass γδ T cells, invariant natural killer (iNKT) cells, mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, and H2-M3-restricted cells (Berg, 2007). Although they are a minor subset of all thymocytes, innate T cells develop in the thymus and share characteristics of the innate and adaptive immune systems (Berg, 2007). These lymphocytes undergo antigen receptor rearrangement and are able to exert their effector function immediately upon ex vivo stimulation (Berg, 2007). However, in several strains of mice harboring mutations in T cell signaling proteins or transcriptional regulators, conventional CD8+ T cells develop as innate cells that share characteristics with memory T cells (Atherly et al., 2006b; Broussard et al., 2006; Fukuyama et al., 2009; Gordon et al., 2011; Verykokakis et al., 2010b; Weinreich et al., 2010). One of these signaling proteins, inducible T cell kinase (Itk) is a nonreceptor protein tyrosine kinase that signals downstream of the T cell receptor (TCR) (Berg et al., 2005). Upon TCR activation, Itk is activated and recruited to the TCR signaling complex, where Itk interacts with Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing leukocyte phosphoprotein of 76 kDa (SLP-76), linker for activation of T cells (LAT), and phospholipase C γ1 (PLCγ1) (Berg et al., 2005). Thus, in Itk-deficient mice, TCR signaling is disrupted, which results in mature CD4- CD8+ (CD8SP) thymocytes that are CD44high, CD62Lhigh, CD122+, and CXCR3+ and that express high levels of the transcription factor, Eomesodermin (Eomes) (Atherly et al., 2006b; Broussard et al., 2006; Weinreich et al., 2010). Recently, it was determined that the development of these innate CD8SP thymocytes in itk-/- mice is dependent on IL-4 produced in the thymic environment by a poorly characterized subset of CD3+ thymocytes expressing the transcriptional regulator, promyelocytic leukemia zinc finger (PLZF) (Gordon et al., 2011; Verykokakis et al., 2010b; Weinreich et al., 2010). Here we show that a sizeable proportion of mature CD4+ CD8- (CD4SP) thymocytes in itk-/- mice also develop as Eomesodermin+ innate T cells. These Eomes+ innate CD4+ T cells are CD44high, CD62Lhigh, CD122+, and CXCR3+ (Atherly et al., 2006b; Broussard et al., 2006; Dubois et al., 2006; Weinreich et al., 2010). Surprisingly, neither CD4SP nor CD8SP innate thymocytes in itk-/- mice are dependent on γδ T cells for their development as was previously hypothesized (Alonzo and Sant'Angelo, 2011). Instead, both subsets of innate itk-/- T cells require the presence of a novel PLZF-expressing, SAP-dependent thymocyte population that is essential for the conversion of conventional CD4+ and CD8+ T cells into Eomesodermin-expressing innate T cells with a memory phenotype. This novel subset of PLZF-expressing SAP-dependent innate T cells preferentially home to the spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes and have a restricted TCR repertoire. Thus, we have christened this subset as CD4+ PLZF + MAIT-like cells. We have characterized multiple subsets of innate T cells that expand in the absence of Itk. Therefore, we were interested in how innate T cells respond to infection. Although Itk KO mice have defects in cytolytic function and cytokine production during an acute infection, these mice are able to clear viral infections (Atherly et al., 2006a; Bachmann et al., 1997). Hence, we hypothesized that Itk-deficient memory CD8+ T cells would be able to provide protection upon a challenge infection. Conversely, we found this not to be true although Itk-deficient memory CD8+ T cells were present in similar frequencies and cell numbers as WT memory CD8+ T cells at 42 days post-infection. Furthermore, Itk-deficient memory CD8+ T cells were able to produce IFNγ and exert cytolytic function upon stimulation. Although the function of Itk-deficient memory CD8+ T cells appeared to be intact, we found that these cells were unable to expand in response to a challenge infection. Remarkably, conventional memory CD8+ T cells lacking Itk were able to expand and form protective memory responses upon challenge. Thus, the inability of Eomes+ innate CD8+ T cells to form protective memory responses does not appear to be intrinsic to cells deficient in Itk. This thesis is divided into six major chapters. The first chapter will provide an introduction to T cell development and the role of Itk in T cell development. Additionally, it will introduce a variety of innate T cell subsets that will be discussed throughout this thesis and will provide an overview of CD4+ and CD8 + T cell differentiation during infection. This section will explain the role of Itk in CD4+ helper T cell differentiation and describe how Itk-deficient CD8+ T cells respond to acute infection. The introduction will also discuss the generation of conventional memory CD8+ T cells. The second chapter will provide the details of the experimental procedures used in this thesis. The third chapter will describe the characterization and development of Eomes+ innate CD4+ T cells that develop in the absence of Itk. Additionally, this chapter will address the subset of PLZF+ innate T cells that induce the expression of Eomes in innate T cells. The fourth chapter will further characterize and explore the development of itk-/- CD4+ PLZF+ MAIT-like T cells. The fifth chapter will examine the role of Eomes + innate CD8+ T cells in protective memory responses. Chapters three through five will display work that is in preparation to be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal. The sixth chapter will discuss the results of this thesis and their implications.

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A pandemia de AIDS é um dos principais problemas de saúde pública no mundo e demanda o desenvolvimento de uma vacina eficaz. Uma abordagem vacinal ideal, baseada em resposta celular contra o HIV-1, deveria induzir uma resposta imune mediada tanto por células T CD4+ quanto CD8+. A diversidade genética do HIV-1 é uma grande preocupação para o desenvolvimento de uma vacina e sequências consenso têm sido utilizadas a fim de contornar a barreira imposta por essa diversidade. A escolha apropriada dos antígenos a comporem as construções vacinas também é relevante, visto que proteínas como Gag e Vif têm se mostrado bastante imunogênicas, enquanto alguns trabalhos têm demonstrado que Env possui características imunossupressoras e que respostas celulares contra esse antígeno podem ser danosas aos indivíduos vacinados. Nosso grupo demonstrou que uma vacina de DNA (HIVBr18) codificando 18 peptídeos para linfócitos T CD4+, promíscuos (capazes de se ligarem a múltiplas moléculas HLA-DR) e conservados na sequência consenso do subtipo B do HIV-1 foi capaz de induzir uma resposta celular ampla, polifuncional e de longa duração em camundongos BALB/c e transgênicos para moléculas HLA. Neste trabalho identificamos 34 peptídeos potencialmente reconhecidos por linfócitos T CD4+, promíscuos e conservados na sequência consenso dos consensos do grupo M do HIV-1. Uma vacina de DNA (HIVBr27) codificando 27 dos 34 peptídeos (exceto os 7 peptídeos de Env identificados) induziu uma resposta mais ampla e de maior magnitude que a vacina HIVBr18 em camundongos BALB/c. Além disso, a vacina HIVBr27 induziu maior frequência de linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+ polifuncionais, capazes de proliferar e produzir as citocinas IFN-gama e TNF-alfa. Desenvolvemos também uma vacina de DNA (HIVenv7) codificando os 7 peptídeos de Env do HIV-1 identificados. A co-imunização de HIVenv7+HIVBr27 reduziu a amplitude da resposta celular contra peptídeos codificados pela vacina HIVBr27. Além disso, a co-imunização reduziu a magnitude da resposta e a frequência de linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+ polifuncionais contra o pool de 27 peptídeos codificados por essa vacina. A vacina HIVBr27, desenhada para induzir uma resposta de linfócitos T CD4+ ampla e intensa contra peptídeos promíscuos e conservados da sequência consenso dos consensos do grupo M do HIV-1, é mais imunogênica e mais completa que a vacina HIVBr18, tendo potencial de conferir, em grande cobertura populacional, imunidade contra os diversos subtipos circulantes do vírus. O fenômeno observado na co-imunização com HIVenv7 sugere que a inclusão do envelope em imunógenos contra o HIV-1 possa ser prejudicial. Por outro lado, isto faz desse plasmídeo um alvo promissor para terapias imunológicas que visem indução de imunossupressão / The AIDS pandemic is a worldwide major public health problem and requires the development of an effective vaccine. An ideal vaccine approach based on cellular immune responses against HIV-1 should induce an immune response mediated by both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. HIV-1 genetic diversity is a major concern for developing a vaccine and consensus sequences have been used to circumvent the barrier posed by this diversity. The appropriate choice of antigens to compose the vaccines is also relevant, since proteins such as Gag and Vif have been shown to be immunogenic, while some studies have shown that Env has immunosuppressive characteristics and cellular responses against this antigen can be harmful to vaccinated individuals. Our group has demonstrated that a DNA vaccine (HIVBr18) encoding promiscuous multiple HLA-DR binding, conserved B-subtype HIV-1 CD4+ T cell epitopes was able to induce a broad, polyfunctional and long lasting T cell response in BALB/c and HLA transgenic mice. In this work we identified 34 promiscuous and conserved sequences within the group M HIV-1 consensus of the consensus sequence, potentially recognized by CD4+ T cells. A DNA vaccine (HIVBr27) encoding 27 of the 34 peptides (except the 7 Env identified peptides) induced a broader and higher magnitude T cell response than HIVBr18 vaccine in BALB/c mice. Moreover, the vaccine HIVBr27 induced a higher frequency of polyfunctional CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, able to proliferate and produce the cytokines IFN-gama and TNF-alfa. We also developed a DNA vaccine (HIVenv7) encoding the 7 HIV-1 Env identified peptides. Co-immunization with HIVenv7+HIVBr27 reduced the breadth of the cellular immune response against the HIVBr27 encoded peptides. Besides, co-imunization reduced the magnitude of the response and the frequency of polyfunctional CD4+ and CD8+ T cells against the pool of 27 peptides encoded by this vaccine. The HIVBr27 vaccine, designed to induce a broad and intense CD4+ T cell response against promiscuous and conserved peptides within the group M HIV-1 consensus of the consensus sequence, is more immunogenic and more complete than the vaccine HIVBr18, having the potential to provide, with wide population coverage, immunity against various circulating subtypes of the virus. The phenomenon observed in the co-immunization with HIVenv7 suggests that the inclusion of the envelope in immunogens against HIV-1 may be harmful. On the other hand, these results suggest that HIVenv7 is a promising target for immune therapies aimed at inducing immunosuppression

This dissertation addresses the role for Janus Kinase 3 (Jak3) in CD4+ T cell homeostasis and function. Jak3 is a protein tyrosine kinase whose activity is essential for signals mediated by the γc dependent cytokines IL-2, -4, -7, -9, -15, and -21. Previous data have demonstrated that peripheral CD4+ T cells from Jak3-deficient mice have a memory phenotype and are functionally impaired in both proliferative and IL-2 responses in vitro. Interestingly, Jak3/γc activity has been previously shown to play a role in the prevention of T cell anergy. These studies were initiated to more precisely define the role for Jak3/γc cytokines in the prevention of T cell anergy and the maintenance of functional CD4+ T cell responses. We began to address this question by assessing global gene expression changes between wild type and Jak3-/- CD4+ T cells. These data indicate that Jak3-/- CD4+ T cells have an increase in gene expression levels of inhibitory surface receptors as well as immunosuppressive cytokines. Further analyses confirmed that Jak3-deficient T cells express high levels of PD-1, secrete a Trl-type cytokine profile following direct ex vivo activation, and suppress the proliferation of wild type T cells in vitro. These characteristics indicate that CD4+ Jak3-/- T cells share properties with regulatory T cell subsets that have an important role in peripheral tolerance and the prevention of autoimmunity. We next addressed whether these regulatory characteristics were T cell intrinsic or rather the result of expanding in a Jak3-deficient microenvironment characterized by a number of immune abnormalities and a disrupted splenic architecture. Jak3-/- CD4+ T cells proliferate in vivoin a lymphopenic environment and selectively acquire regulatory T cell characteristics in the absence of any additional activation signals. While the precise mechanism by which Jak3-deficient T cells acquire these characteristics remains unclear, our data indicate that one important component is a T cell-intrinsic requirement for Jak3 signaling. These findings indicate several interesting aspects of T cell biology. First, these studies, demonstrate that the homeostatic proliferation of CD4+ T cells is not dependent on signaling via γc-dependent cytokine receptors. And, second, that the weak activation signals normally associated with homeostatic expansion are sufficient to drive Jak3-/- T cells into a non-conventional differentiation program. Previous data indicate that, for wild type T cells, signaling through both the TCR as well as γc-dependent cytokine receptors promote the homeostatic proliferation of T cells in lymphopenic hosts. Since Jak3-/- T cells are unable to receive these cytokine signals, their proliferation is likely to be wholly dependent on TCR signaling. As a consequence of this TCR signaling, Jak3-/- T cells proliferate, but in addition, are induced to up regulate PD-1 and to selectively activate the IL-10 locus while shutting off the production of IL-2. Since this fate does not occur for wild type T cells in a comparable environment, it is likely that the unique differentiation pathway taken by Jak3-/- T cells reflects the effects of TCR signaling in the absence of γc-dependent cytokine signaling. Interestingly, wild type T cells undergoing homeostatic expansion in lymphopenic hosts show many common patterns of gene expression to freshly-purified unmanipulated Jak3-/- T cells. For instance, micro array analysis of gene expression in wild type CD4+ T cells after lymphopenia induced homeostatic expansion show a similar pattern of upregulation in surface markers (PD-1 and LAG-3), and cytokine signaling molecules (IL-10 and IFN-γ cytokine, receptors, and inducible gene targets) to that of Jak3-/- CD4+ T cells immediately ex vivo. These data suggest that the process of homeostatic proliferation normally induces immune attenuation and peripheral tolerance mechanisms, but that full differentiation into a regulatory T cell phenotype is prevented by γc-dependent cytokine signals. Taken together these data suggest that Jak3 plays an important role in tempering typical immune attenuation mechanisms employed to maintain T cell homeostasis and peripheral tolerance.

Introdução: Uma proporção significante de pacientes infectados por HIV-1 (pacientes HIV-1+) tratados com inibidores de protease (IPs) desenvolve mutações de resistência. Estudos recentes têm mostrado que células T CD8+ de pacientes HIV- 1+ reconhecem epitopos de Pol incluindo mutações selecionadas por drogas. Nenhum epitopo CD4+ da protease foi descrito na base de dados de Los Alamos. Objetivo: Considerando que a protease de HIV-1 é alvo de terapia antiretroviral e que essa pressão pode selecionar mutações, nós investigamos se mutações selecionadas por IPs afetariam o reconhecimento de epitopos da protease de HIV-1 por células T CD4+ em pacientes tratados com IPs. Nós investigamos o reconhecimento de três regiões da protease preditas de conter epitopos de células T CD4+ bem como mutações induzidas por IPs por células T CD4+ em pacientes HIV- 1+ tratados com IPs. Materiais e Métodos: Quarenta pacientes HIV-1+ tratados com IPs foram incluídos (30 em uso de Lopinavir/ritonavir, 9 em uso de Atazanavir/Ritonavir e 1 em uso exclusivo de Atazanavir). Para cada paciente determinou-se a seqüência endógena da protease de HIV-1, genotipagem viral e tipagem HLA classe II. Utilizamos o algoritmo TEPITOPE para selecionar peptídeos promíscuos, ligadores de múltiplas moléculas HLA-DR, codificando as três regiões da protease de HIV-1 cepa HXB2 (HXB2 4-23, 45-64, e 76-95) e 32 peptídeos adicionais contidos nas mesmas regiões incorporando as mutações induzidas por IPs mais freqüentes no Brasil. Os 35 peptídeos foram sintetizados. Respostas proliferativas de células T CD4+ e CD8+ aos peptídeos foram determinadas por ensaios de proliferação com diluição do corante CFSE. Ensaios de ligação a alelos HLA classe II foram realizados para confirmar a promiscuidade desses peptídeos e avaliar a habilidade de se ligarem a moléculas HLA presentes em cada paciente. Resultados: Todos os peptídeos foram reconhecidos por pelo menos um paciente e respostas proliferativas de células T CD4+ e CD8+ a pelo menos um peptídeo da protease de HIV-1 foram encontradas em 78% e 75% dos pacientes, respectivamente. A terceira região (Protease 76 95) foi a mais freqüentemente reconhecida. Ao compararmos as respostas de células T às seqüências da protease do HIV-1 endógeno, observamos que a maioria dos pacientes não foi capaz de reconhecer peptídeos idênticos às essas seqüências, porém reconheceram peptídeos variantes diferentes das mesmas regiões. Apenas sete pacientes responderam às seqüências endógenas. Verificamos que diversos peptídeos endógenos que não foram reconhecidos apresentaram ausência de ligação a alelos HLA portados por estes pacientes, sugerindo que mutações selecionadas por pressão imune tenham levado ao escape de apresentação de antígeno e evasão de resposta de linfócitos T CD4+. Alternativamente, isso poderia ser explicado pela presença de um vírus replicante distinto presente no plasma uma vez que somente foram obtidas seqüências provirais. Conclusão: Epitopos selvagens e mutantes da protease do HIV-1 reconhecidos por células T CD4+ foram identificados. Também verificamos que a maior parte dos pacientes não reconheceu as seqüências da protease endógena enquanto que reconheceram seqüências variantes. O reconhecimento de seqüências não-endógenas poderia ser hipoteticamente conseqüência de alvo de populações HIV-1 minoritárias; protease de HERV que contém regiões de similaridade com a protease do HIV-1; ou seqüências de HIV-1 presentes apenas em parceiros virêmicos. A falha de reconhecimento de seqüências endógenas seria mais provável devido ao escape imune, do que ao nível de apresentação ou reconhecimento por células T. Isso implica em uma conseqüência patofisiológica na evasão de respostas de células T contra a protease de HIV-1 e no fato de ser tradicionalmente considerada uma proteína pouco antigênica / Introduction: A significant proportion of protease inhibitor (PI)-treated HIV-1 infected (HIV-1+) patients develop resistance mutations. Recent studies have shown that CD8+ T cells from HIV-1 patients can recognize antiretroviral drug-induced mutant Pol epitopes. No HIV-1 protease CD4 epitopes are described in the Los Alamos database. Aims: Given that the protease of HIV-1 is a target of antiretroviral therapy and this pressure may lead to the selection of mutations, we investigated whether PI-induced mutations affect the recognition of HIV-1 protease epitopes by CD4 + T cells in PI-treated patients. We investigated the recognition of three protease regions predicted to harbor CD4+ T cell epitopes as well as PI-induced mutations by CD4+ T cells of PI-treated HIV-1+ patients. Methods: Forty PI-treated HIV-1+ patients were included (30 undergoing Lopinavir/ritonavir, 9 undergoing Atazanavir/ritonavir and 1 undergoing exclusively Atazanavir treatment). For each patients, the endogenous HIV-1 protease sequence, viral genotype and HLA class II typing were determined. We used the TEPITOPE algorithm to select promiscuous, multiple HLA-DR-binding peptides encoding 3 regions of HIV-1 HXB2 strain protease (HXB2 4-23, 45-64, and 76-95) and 32 additional peptides contained in the same regions, but encompassing the most frequent PI-induced mutations in Brazil. The 35 peptides were thus synthesized. Proliferative responses of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells against peptides were determined by the CFSE dilution assay. HLA class II binding assays were made to confirm the promiscuity of these peptides and evaluate their ability to bind the HLA molecules carried by each patient. Results: All tested peptides were recognized by at least one patient and proliferative responses of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells against at least one HIV-1 protease peptide were found in 78% and 75% patients, respectively. The third region (Protease 76-95) was the most frequently recognized. By comparing T-cell responses to HIV-1 endogenous protease sequences, we found that most patients failed to recognize identical peptides of those sequences, but recognized different variant peptides of the same region. Only seven patients responded to endogenous sequences. We found that several endogenous peptides that failed to be recognized showed no binding to the HLA alleles carried by that given patient, suggesting that mutations selected by immune pressure have led to escape of antigen presentation, as well as direct escape of the CD4+ T cell response. Alternatively, it could have been due to the presence of a different replicating virus in the plasma-since we only obtained proviral sequences. Conclusion: Wild-type and mutant HIV-1 protease epitopes recognized by CD4+ T cells were identified. We also found that most patients failed to recognize their endogenous protease sequences, while they recognized variant sequences. The recognition of non-endogenous sequences could hypothetically be a consequence of targeting a minor HIV-1 population; HERV protease, that contains regions of similarity with HIV-1 protease; or HIV-1 sequences present only in viremic partners. The failure to recognize endogenous sequences is most likely due to immune escape, either at the level of presentation or direct T cell recognition. This may have a pathophysiological consequence on evasion of T cell responses against protease and the fact that it has been considered traditionally a poorly antigenic HIV-1 protein.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Linköping : Linköpings universitet, 2010. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Development of a suitable animal model of AIDS is much needed in AIDS research to study infection and pathogenesis as well as to evaluate methods of prevention and treatment of HIV infection. Small animals such as rodents are attractive candidates for AIDS research due to the availability of various inbred and genetically engineered strains, extensive knowledge or their immune system, especially in mice, and the relative ease of breeding and maintaining animal colonies. Transgenic small animal models carrying entire HIV genome or selected genes have been instrumental to understand functions of HIV genes in vivo and their role in HIV pathogenesis. The type of cells in which HIV genes are expressed seems to be an import prerequisite for the study of HIV gene functions in transgenic mice. Mice constitutively expressing the entire HIV-1 genome or HIV-1 nef gene in CD4 + T cells and in the cells of macrophage/dendritic lineage develop an AIDS-like disease very similar to AIDS disease in humans. Similarly, expression of Nef in adult mice, using inducible system, results in the AIDS-like disease. This disease is characterized by thymic atrophy, impaired thymocyte maturation, loss of CD4+ T cells, increased activation and turnover of T cells, which can occur in the absence of lymphypenia, and non-lymphoid organ disease involving the lungs and kidneys. Susceptibility of adult mice to the pathological effects of Nef suggests that the AIDS-like disease in the constitutively expressing Nef Tg mice is not due to developmental defects caused by early expression of Nef. This model highlights the important role of Nef in HIV-1 pathogenesis. The high similarity in the disease in these Tg mice with human AIDS strongly suggest that these mice are a relevant model to study AIDS. This study further evidence that mouse cells can support functions of Nef and these Tg mice represent a unique model to study Nef functions in vivo in the context of the primary immune system. Moreover, the inducible Nef Tg model has given us the ability to control the level and time of expression of Nef which was impossible to do in the previously reported constitutive Nef Tg mouse models. These mice will be useful to study immune reconstitution since Nef expression can be turned off after withdrawal from dox.