The current study examined children’s stereotypes about sexualized girls. Elementary school children (n = 208) from the mid-South between the ages of 6 and 11 completed a survey assessing their stereotypes about sexualized girls and non-sexualized girls. Participants were asked to justify, in their own words, their responses to several stereotypic evaluations. Children’s cognitive development was analyzed through classification skill as a moderator of belief in stereotypes about girls. Results revealed that children perceived the sexualized girl to be more popular and better liked by boys than the non-sexualized girl. However, the sexualized girl was also rated as less athletic, nice, smart, and typical than the non-sexualized girl. The non-sexualized girl was reported to have nicer clothes and was someone the participants would rather be friends with than the sexualized girl. Girls believed that they dressed more like and looked more like the non-sexualized girl than the sexualized girl, however, they had no preference for which girl they would rather look like. Classification skill moderated the endorsement of these stereotypes, such that high classifiers were more differentiated in their answers than low classifiers. Thus, the current study suggests that children have unique stereotypes about sexualized girls.

Children's oral health is an important but often overlooked component of overall health. Tooth decay therefore remains a common phenomenon among children. It is however entirely preventable through early and sustained intervention. The aim of this research was to develop an age-appropriate programme to enhance children's knowledge and awareness of proper dental care. Action research was applied in this research, which was characterized by various cyclical research phases, including planning, reflecting and implementing. The initial phase of the research included a thorough literature investigation and a baseline assessment, consisting of a questionnaire which assessed preschool children's basic knowledge and awareness of proper dental care. Purposive sampling was used to select 52 Afrikaans-speaking children, between the ages of five and seven years, of different preschools. This age group was chosen because children in this developmental phase are at an age where their activity, curiosity and ability to construct a better system for understanding the world, are key to the process of development. The data obtained indicated a moderate level of knowledge and awareness among the participating children. The initial literature study and the baseline data informed the development of an age-appropriate dental care programme, according to Piaget's theory of cognitive development. The different developmental tasks of the identified age group were considered to be very important in the development of an age-appropriate programme and to teach children the basic aspects of proper dental care by using information and activities that are stimulating, creative and challenging. The programme focuses on basic aspects of proper dental care, including the healthy tooth, loss of primary teeth, the importance of primary teeth and development of permanent teeth, the process of tooth decay, diet, different ways of caring for teeth, and visiting the dentist. Parent involvement was also emphasized in the presentation of the programme. Specialist practitioners in the fields of developmental psychology and dentistry were asked to evaluate the newly developed programme. They were asked to focus on four specific areas, namely, general feedback on the questionnaire that was used for the initial baseline assessment, the overall appearance and presentation of the dental care programme, the relevance and appropriateness of the programme and its activities for the specific age group, and suggestions for further adjustments and improvements. Programme evaluation is an important part of the developmental process and contributes to the eventual appropriate and relevance of the intervention. The specialists' evaluation indicated that the programme appears to be a well-designed intervention that could contribute to enhancing preschool children's knowledge and awareness of proper dental care. Suggestions were made to adjust the programme in certain areas to make it more appealing to children and to enhance its appropriateness and relevance. For example it was suggested that the language used in the programme be more consistent. More structure should be added to the programme manual to assist facilitators in presenting it. These suggestions were considered to be valuable in improving the efficacy of the age-appropriate programme and the adjustments were made. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Longer breastfeeding durations may enhance cognition and accelerate motor development; motor development, and in particular, crawling, may lead to dramatic changes in cognition. Based on these empirical relations, the hypothesis that crawling mediates breastfeeding duration and cognitive outcome was tested. Specifically, it was hypothesized that longer breastfeeding durations would significantly predict both earlier crawling and higher cognitive scores at 2 years of age, that earlier crawling would also predict higher cognitive scores, and that earlier crawling would account for part of the relationship between longer breastfeeding durations and higher cognitive scores. A sample of 44 full term infants from Winnipeg, Manitoba was followed longitudinally between birth and 2 years of age. Data on breastfeeding duration and crawling were collected through daily parent checklists, with supplemental breastfeeding information obtained via questionnaires. Near the toddlers’ 2nd birthdays, cognitive abilities were assessed with the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory: Words and Sentences (Fenson et al., 1993) and the Parent Report of Children’s Abilities (Saudino et al., 1998). All 3 key variables were measured on continuous scales, and a mediational analysis based on Baron and Kenny’s (1986) classic approach of 3 regressions was used. Several covariates were considered for inclusion in the regressions, but none reached significance in preliminary tests and thus, were not included. In the first 2 regression analyses, exclusive and partial breastfeeding durations significantly predicted neither cognitive scores (p = .59) nor age of crawling attainment (p = .41). The 3rd regression analysis showed a significant, small-to-medium effect size for earlier crawling attainment predicting higher cognitive scores (p < .05, adjusted R2 = .09). However, crawling onset had no effect on the breastfeeding-cognition link. The overall test of the mediation was inconclusive, due to low power. The significant finding between age of crawling onset and cognitive outcomes at 2 years of age may be due to earlier crawling altering the course of development, to reverse causation whereby more cognitively advanced infants are motivated to crawl sooner, or to a 3rd variable affecting both crawling and cognition. Future research should continue to explore motor and cognitive connections in infant development.

The goal of this study is to assess the far-transfer effects of strategy-based working memory (WM) training to a novel problem solving task. Far-transfer refers to the application of trained skills to an untrained situation and is especially important because it deals with the generalization of learning to novel contexts. However, previous working memory training studies have produced little evidence for far-transfer. In the current study, children were trained in two strategies, phonological rehearsal and semantic categorization. These strategies have been suggested to increase the efficiency in processing and encoding of information and are invoked to explain developmental increases in WM capacity. Sixteen 6-to 9-year-olds were randomly assigned to each of four training conditions: semantic and rehearsal training, semantic training only, rehearsal training only, and treated control group. The treated control group performed significantly worse on the problem solving task compared to the three training groups. Surprisingly, the treatment groups did not differ significantly from each other. There was no statistically significant difference in receiving combined training of both strategies compared to only one strategy and furthermore, neither strategy resulted in better performance compared to the other strategy. Future directions for WM training and the implications for cognitive interventions are discussed. / Graduate / 0620 / 0633 / sharonc@uvic.ca

An understanding of ownership is an important aspect of child development because it helps to promote harmonious social interactions. People are typically restricted from using objects belonging to others. Respecting others’ ownership rights is necessary for socially appropriate behaviour. Because of the frequent property disputes that children engage in, it might be expected that preschoolers’ appreciation for ownership is limited and that adult input is needed to teach children about ownership rights. In three experiments, I demonstrate the opposite. Preschoolers value ownership rights more strongly than do adults and support ownership rights in property entitlement disputes between a possessor and an owner. An additional two experiments demonstrate that although children strongly value ownership rights above other principles of entitlement, they show some flexibility in their reasoning about ownership rights when provided with sufficiently compelling reasons to consider disregarding these rights. These findings show developmental differences in children’s ability to determine when ownership rights should be disregarded. Older children and adults disregard ownership rights when they are provided with compelling enough reasons do so, whereas younger children often uphold owners’ rights to the exclusion of all other factors. Together, these studies challenge the intuitive view that children learn about ownership from adult input. Rather than strengthening children’s appreciation of ownership rights, adult input may serve to teach children about situations where it is socially appropriate to disregard ownership.

Longer breastfeeding durations may enhance cognition and accelerate motor development; motor development, and in particular, crawling, may lead to dramatic changes in cognition. Based on these empirical relations, the hypothesis that crawling mediates breastfeeding duration and cognitive outcome was tested. Specifically, it was hypothesized that longer breastfeeding durations would significantly predict both earlier crawling and higher cognitive scores at 2 years of age, that earlier crawling would also predict higher cognitive scores, and that earlier crawling would account for part of the relationship between longer breastfeeding durations and higher cognitive scores. A sample of 44 full term infants from Winnipeg, Manitoba was followed longitudinally between birth and 2 years of age. Data on breastfeeding duration and crawling were collected through daily parent checklists, with supplemental breastfeeding information obtained via questionnaires. Near the toddlers’ 2nd birthdays, cognitive abilities were assessed with the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory: Words and Sentences (Fenson et al., 1993) and the Parent Report of Children’s Abilities (Saudino et al., 1998). All 3 key variables were measured on continuous scales, and a mediational analysis based on Baron and Kenny’s (1986) classic approach of 3 regressions was used. Several covariates were considered for inclusion in the regressions, but none reached significance in preliminary tests and thus, were not included. In the first 2 regression analyses, exclusive and partial breastfeeding durations significantly predicted neither cognitive scores (p = .59) nor age of crawling attainment (p = .41). The 3rd regression analysis showed a significant, small-to-medium effect size for earlier crawling attainment predicting higher cognitive scores (p < .05, adjusted R2 = .09). However, crawling onset had no effect on the breastfeeding-cognition link. The overall test of the mediation was inconclusive, due to low power. The significant finding between age of crawling onset and cognitive outcomes at 2 years of age may be due to earlier crawling altering the course of development, to reverse causation whereby more cognitively advanced infants are motivated to crawl sooner, or to a 3rd variable affecting both crawling and cognition. Future research should continue to explore motor and cognitive connections in infant development.

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This thesis presents a broad exploratory analysis of apostasy from religious fundamentalism in light of cognitive developmental theory. Reciprocally, the thesis provides a critique of cognitive developmental theory in light of its application to apostasy from fundamentalism. Autobiographical narratives of approximately 200 apostates from Christian and Muslim fundamentalisms are used to represent the experience of apostasy. Three related and representative cognitive developmental theories are used to inform the analysis of these apostate narratives. These theories include James Fowler’s Stages of Faith (FDT) (1981); Fritz Oser and Paul Gmünder’s Stages of Religious Judgment (RJT) (1991); and Helmut Reich’s Levels of Relational and Contextual Reasoning (RCR) (2002). These three representative theories are used to generate cognitive developmental hypotheses for the experiences of apostates from fundamentalisms. There are three primary hypotheses guiding the research: (i) Fundamentalist contents predispose a particular form of cognitive operations. (ii) Fundamentalist contents suspend equilibration between accommodation and assimilation. And (iii), some forms of apostasy from fundamentalism are the product of a sociocognitive conflict. These hypotheses are addressed through four research questions: (i) How do fundamentalist cultures sponsor or arrest cognitive development? (ii) What are the developmental characteristics of apostates’ experiences? (iii) What are the implications of cognitive development for apostasy and fundamentalism? And (iv), what are the implications of apostasy from fundamentalism for theories of cognitive development? The thesis utilises a paradigm of critical realism and a theory of interactionism. Critical realism assumes the existence of an objective reality, while acknowledging its exclusively subjective mediation. The interactionist approach acknowledges the potential influences of genetic predisposition, social-environmental context, and individual agency affecting cognitive development and apostasy from fundamentalism. A dual methodological approach is used to collect and analyse data relevant to the hypothesis. Data collection involves two phases: (i) Collection of existing unstructured apostate narratives. And (ii), collection of semi-structured apostate responses. The first phase narratives are collected using online databases, published anthologies, and solicited scripts. The second phase responses are collected using a semi-structured survey. The dual methodological analysis combines coded content analysis and narrative analysis. Coding is informed by the three developmental theories. The qualitative thesis findings may be summarised in two parts. The first pertains to apostasy from fundamentalism; the second pertains to cognitive developmental theory. Of the former, the research found: (i) Cognitive development represents a significant and even primary influence in some forms of apostasy from fundamentalism. And (ii), some forms of fundamentalism sponsor stage specific structures. Reflecting on cognitive theories of religious development, the research found: (i) Sociocultural, affective, and noncognitive physical influences may directly and indirectly facilitate or inhibit cognitive development. (ii) Specific stages and structures of cognitive development may be culturally embedded. (iii) Cognitive development may be compartmentalised. (iv) Cognitive development may regress or fracture when faced with transitional crises and environmental changes. (v) There are diverse trajectories of religious development. And (vi), fractured development at one stage may perpetuate fractured development in the next stage. Finally, the thesis discusses implications of these findings for contemporary dialogue on religious development. These collective findings provide support for a religious styles model (i.e. Streib’s Religious Styles Perspective, 2001) that integrates a cognitive stream based on Fowler’s faith development into a more multiperspective understanding of religious development. Such a model would account more adequately for the diverse influences interacting to produce different trajectories of religious development.

This thesis presents a broad exploratory analysis of apostasy from religious fundamentalism in light of cognitive developmental theory. Reciprocally, the thesis provides a critique of cognitive developmental theory in light of its application to apostasy from fundamentalism. Autobiographical narratives of approximately 200 apostates from Christian and Muslim fundamentalisms are used to represent the experience of apostasy. Three related and representative cognitive developmental theories are used to inform the analysis of these apostate narratives. These theories include James Fowler’s Stages of Faith (FDT) (1981); Fritz Oser and Paul Gmünder’s Stages of Religious Judgment (RJT) (1991); and Helmut Reich’s Levels of Relational and Contextual Reasoning (RCR) (2002). These three representative theories are used to generate cognitive developmental hypotheses for the experiences of apostates from fundamentalisms. There are three primary hypotheses guiding the research: (i) Fundamentalist contents predispose a particular form of cognitive operations. (ii) Fundamentalist contents suspend equilibration between accommodation and assimilation. And (iii), some forms of apostasy from fundamentalism are the product of a sociocognitive conflict. These hypotheses are addressed through four research questions: (i) How do fundamentalist cultures sponsor or arrest cognitive development? (ii) What are the developmental characteristics of apostates’ experiences? (iii) What are the implications of cognitive development for apostasy and fundamentalism? And (iv), what are the implications of apostasy from fundamentalism for theories of cognitive development? The thesis utilises a paradigm of critical realism and a theory of interactionism. Critical realism assumes the existence of an objective reality, while acknowledging its exclusively subjective mediation. The interactionist approach acknowledges the potential influences of genetic predisposition, social-environmental context, and individual agency affecting cognitive development and apostasy from fundamentalism. A dual methodological approach is used to collect and analyse data relevant to the hypothesis. Data collection involves two phases: (i) Collection of existing unstructured apostate narratives. And (ii), collection of semi-structured apostate responses. The first phase narratives are collected using online databases, published anthologies, and solicited scripts. The second phase responses are collected using a semi-structured survey. The dual methodological analysis combines coded content analysis and narrative analysis. Coding is informed by the three developmental theories. The qualitative thesis findings may be summarised in two parts. The first pertains to apostasy from fundamentalism; the second pertains to cognitive developmental theory. Of the former, the research found: (i) Cognitive development represents a significant and even primary influence in some forms of apostasy from fundamentalism. And (ii), some forms of fundamentalism sponsor stage specific structures. Reflecting on cognitive theories of religious development, the research found: (i) Sociocultural, affective, and noncognitive physical influences may directly and indirectly facilitate or inhibit cognitive development. (ii) Specific stages and structures of cognitive development may be culturally embedded. (iii) Cognitive development may be compartmentalised. (iv) Cognitive development may regress or fracture when faced with transitional crises and environmental changes. (v) There are diverse trajectories of religious development. And (vi), fractured development at one stage may perpetuate fractured development in the next stage. Finally, the thesis discusses implications of these findings for contemporary dialogue on religious development. These collective findings provide support for a religious styles model (i.e. Streib’s Religious Styles Perspective, 2001) that integrates a cognitive stream based on Fowler’s faith development into a more multiperspective understanding of religious development. Such a model would account more adequately for the diverse influences interacting to produce different trajectories of religious development.

A literatura infantil, como ferramenta útil para a promoção das habilidades sociocognitivas, pode ser utilizada para reduzir os problemas comportamentais e maximizar competências das crianças. Este estudo teve como objetivo implementar um programa com base na leitura de histórias infantis e avaliar seu efeito no desenvolvimento sociocognitivo e comportamental dos participantes. O programa conta com 25 livros de histórias infantis, ricos em pistas sociais do ponto de vista do processamento da informação. Participaram da pesquisa 45 alunos, da última etapa da educação infantil, de uma instituição educativa de cunho filantrópico mantida por ONG, e duas professoras como informantes. Os participantes se subdividiram em dois grupos: GI, composto por 25 crianças que passaram pela intervenção no segundo semestre de 2010 e GII, composto por 20 crianças participantes da intervenção no segundo semestre de 2011. Foi empregado um delineamento de comparação entre grupos, com avaliação pré e pós-intervenção, para o GI, e avaliação pré espera, pré intervenção, e pós intervenção para o GII. O intervalo de tempo, entre a primeira e a segunda avaliação no GII, correspondeu ao tempo de duração da intervenção, três meses. Para avaliar o efeito do programa de histórias, foram utilizados três instrumentos: questionário de respostas socialmente habilidosas, segundo relato do professor (QRSH-RP), questionário de capacidades e dificuldades (SDQ) e um instrumento de investigação sociocognitiva, aprimorado e sistematizado para a presente pesquisa. A coleta de dados ocorreu em momentos correspondentes à pré e pós-intervenção no G1 e em momentos correspondentes a pré-espera, pré e pós intervenção no GII. Para a avaliação sociocognitiva, as crianças foram avaliadas, individualmente, pela pesquisadora. Para as demais investigações, os professores avaliaram as crianças por meio dos instrumentos já citados. A análise dos resultados compreendeu comparações entre os grupos, bem como comparações entre os momentos avaliativos no GI e no GII. Os resultados sugerem efeitos positivos da intervenção, pois as crianças de ambos os grupos ampliaram suas habilidades sociais, sociocognitivas e os comportamentos prossociais; apresentaram, também, redução dos problemas de relacionamento, hiperatividade e, de modo geral, de suas dificuldades. A intervenção, portanto, mostra-se benéfica e com resultados promissores para a promoção das habilidades sociais, da cognição social e do relacionamento entre as crianças. / Children\'s literature, as an useful tool for promoting socio cognitive skills, can be used to reduce behavioral problems and maximize the skills of children. This study aims to implement a program based on the reading of childrens storybooks and assessing their effect on cognitive development and behavior of participants. The program has 25 children\'s storybooks, rich in social cues from the standpoint of information processing. The participants were 45 students from the last stage of kindergarten, of a philanthropic educational institution maintained by a NGO Non-Governmental Organization, and two teachers as informants. The participants were subdivided into two groups: GI, composed of 25 children who went through the intervention in the second half of 2010 and GII, composed of 20 children participating in the intervention in the second half of 2011. A design comparison was used on both groups, with pre-and post-intervention for GI, and pre-waiting, pre-intervention and pos-intervention for GII. The time between the first and second assessment on GII, corresponded to the duration of intervention, three months. To evaluate the effect of the programs storybook three instruments were used: Socially Skilled Responses Questionnaire, from a teachers perspective (QRSH-RP), Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and an instrument of socio cognitive investigation, improved and systematized for the present research. Data collection was carried out before and after the intervention with GI and for GII, with was carried out on pre-waiting, pre-intervention and pos-intervention. For the socio cognitive evaluation, children were assessed individually by the researcher. For other investigation, teachers assessed the children using the instruments already mentioned. Data analysis involved comparisons between groups, as well as evaluative comparisons between the GI and GII. The results suggest positive effects of the intervention, as children improved their social and socio cognitive skills and improved their prossociais behaviors; also reduced their relationship problems, hyperactivity and, in general, their difficulties. Therefore, the intervention has proved beneficial and promising results for promoting social skills, social cognition and relationship between children.