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Interpretive provisions in human rights legislation : a comparative analysisCoxon, Benedict Francis January 2013 (has links)
This thesis considers interpretive provisions in human rights legislation in the United Kingdom (UK), New Zealand and two Australian jurisdictions: the Australian Capital Territory and the State of Victoria. It deals with the relationship between certain common law interpretive principles which protect human rights and the rules under the interpretive provisions. It also considers what effect the interpretive provisions have on the overall approach to statutory interpretation, particularly in terms of their impact on the roles of intention and purpose. One of the themes of the thesis is that it is possible to identify a common methodology for the application of the various interpretive provisions. This is facilitated by an emphasis on the concept of purpose, which is flexible and capable of being identified and applied at higher levels of abstraction than the concept of intention as commonly applied by the courts. Despite this common methodology, the results of attempts at legislative rights-consistent interpretation in the relevant jurisdictions differ. We shall see that the UK courts have taken a broader interpretive approach than have their New Zealand and Australian counterparts. This will be explained by reference to the respective contexts of the human rights legislation in each jurisdiction, particularly in terms of legislative history. It will be argued that the purpose of the UK legislation to provide remedies in domestic courts for breaches of the European Convention on Human Rights provides the basis for the UK courts’ approach. The absence of this factor is the primary point of distinction between the UK on the one hand, and New Zealand and Australia on the other, though other issues will be explored. Finally, while as a matter of the interpretation of the UK legislation, and especially of the relevant interpretive provision, the approach of the UK courts is defensible, the significant risk to the principle of legal certainty which it poses will be highlighted.
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A theory of national application of the European Convention on Human RightsBjorge, Eirik January 2014 (has links)
This study seeks to flesh out a theory of national application of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). It does so by seeking to provide an answer to the research question, ‘what is the proper role of the domestic courts in the application of the European Convention?’ By relying upon the examples of French, German, and UK law, the study argues that it is not true in descriptive terms, nor desirable in normative terms, that the domestic courts take an approach to the ECHR based upon friction and assertion of sovereignty. This study argues instead that domestic application of the ECHR is built on the attainment of certain aims. These aims are inferred, in the main, from the domestic courts’ jurisprudence, such as it relates to four central ECHR doctrines, and they are: the doctrines of evolutionary interpretation; proportionality; the margin of appreciation; and autonomous concepts. On the basis of an analysis of this jurisprudence, the four aims are identified as being, first, honouring the principle of pacta sunt servanda; secondly, the safeguarding of human rights based upon the insight that human rights are a paramount good to be pursued; thirdly, the aim of positive, as opposed to negative, rights diversity; and, fourthly, the aim that conclusions reached on the domestic level of one state must be capable of being universalized. The approach of the domestic courts to the application of the ECHR can be explained on the basis of the domestic courts’ wish to attain these four aims. The proper role played by the domestic courts, the study argues, is one in which they are willing to give a lead to Strasbourg as well as to be led, in both, to use the wording of the Preamble of the ECHR, ‘the maintenance’ and in the ‘further realisation’ of the Convention rights.
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Revisiting the legal regulation of digital identity in the light of global implementation and local differenceRodrigues, Rowena Edwardina January 2011 (has links)
This thesis aims to address a vital gap that has emerged in the digital identity regulatory discourse: how can the legal regulation of digital identity mirror the global nature of digital identity and be compatible with national local difference? Digital identity, or the digital representation of an individual, is a complex concept, which manifests in myriad forms (e.g. authenticators, claims, data or information, identifiers, presence, relationship representations and reputation) and natures. As such, it engages a gamut of legal domains ranging from criminal law, constitutional law, human rights law, law of identity schemes, contract law, intellectual property law, tort law and data protection law. Digital identity is global and local in its nature, influence and effects. Yet, the digital identity regulatory discourse has primarily developed in and focussed on the digitally advanced West, leaving out countries like India which are developing strong digital presences, with their own digital identity perceptions and needs. This situation is adverse to the sustained future of digital identity. Thus, the contribution of this thesis lies in filling this gap and preparing the ground for a dialogue between different countries with different national agendas through building international and local awareness of how similarities and differences operate in respect of digital identity, its regulation and providing a modest solution to help preserve the global and local dimensions of digital identity and its regulation. To this end, the thesis carried out comparative legal research on the legal regulation of digital identity using the UK and India as base jurisdictions. The original hypothesis was that that immense differences in the legal regulation of digital identity between the comparator countries would emerge. Yet, though differences were evident, considerable degrees of similarity also emerged, not just on the superficial level of mere identity of rules, but also in legal practice, in large part attributable to India’s penchant for legal transplants. While the transplantation of Western law did not result in a full-scale rejection of the transplanted laws in relation to digital identity in India, there are indications of anomalies caused by the imposition of Western cultural norms through law on an Indian society ill prepared for it. Thus there has resulted a tension between the local and the global, the indigenous and the externally imposed. The challenge is thus to resolve this, taking into account, on the one hand the need to maintain the global nature and relevance of digital identity and the other, the need to accommodate and be responsive to local differences. The thesis proposes a tentative solution called the tri-elemental framework (TeF) which draws from the Indian philosophical and legal concept of dharma (and its elements of Sad Achara, Vyavahara and Prayaschitta) and learns from the most universally relevant digital identity proposal, De Hert’s right to identity. The solution provides one way in which the law regulating digital identity, whatever its nature, can be made sense of and acquire cultural meaning appropriate to local contexts.
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Comparison of post-employment restraints in South Africa, England and GermanyGuhl, Christian Andreas 12 1900 (has links)
Thesis (LLM)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation deals with restraints in post-employment cases in England, South Africa and
Germany. The attempt was made to compare the restraint of trade doctrine that was developed
in England and is still used in the common law countries, on one the hand, and the German
restraint of trade rules on the other.
Therefore the development of the restraint of trade doctrine in England is described, as well as
the modifications of the restraint of trade doctrine in South Africa. Also it is given an overview
of the German restraint of trade rules.
As far as the English and South African law is concerned, the historical developments and
applicable principles of the restraint of trade doctrine are emphasised, whereas the main aim in
the German part is to give an overview about the codified restraint of trade rules.
While comparing the common law doctrine and the German restraint of trade law it is
emphasised that in the common law countries the reasonableness and public interest plays an
important role, whereas in German restraint of trade law, on the other hand, the payment of
compensation is an important matter. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: geen opsomming
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Judicial management as a technique for corporate rescue. A comparison with English and Australian law.Kloppers, Pieter W 03 1900 (has links)
Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Judicial management has been part of South African company law since 1926. It was
introduced as a procedure to provide for a corporate rescue. Judicial management has
changed little since its introduction. This is in stark contrast with the position in other
jurisdictions where the need for improved corporate or business rescue procedures has
received considerable attention in the last few decades.
This thesis examines the suitability of judicial management as a business rescue
procedure for the current South African circumstances and compares it to similar
mechanisms in England and Australia.
The modem economy relies on credit. Furthermore the globalisation of markets and
the increase in competition between enterprises add to the unpredictability of an
enterprise's economic circumstances. Thus, one of the important objectives of a
corporate insolvency regime is the preservation of viable economic enterprises. A
business rescue procedure such as judicial management is therefore an essential
component of a corporate insolvency regime.
However, judicial management needs reform. The existing shortcomings of judicial
management include its high cost, the appointment of professional liquidators as
business rescuers, the lack of a business rescue culture, the absence of an approved
rescue plan, the treatment of judicial management as an extraordinary measure in
corporate insolvency and the use of section 311 of the Companies Act as a corporate
rescue mechanism. This thesis proposes that judicial management should commence with a mere
resolution by the directors. This is less cumbersome than the existing procedure to
commence judicial management comprising a court order. Judicial management
triggers a stay of limited duration on legal proceedings that provides an essential
breathing space to devise and implement a rescue plan.
Once judicial management commences the creditors should hold the power to decide
on the future of the company. They can therefore accept or reject a rescue plan
(prepared by the judicial manager) for the restructuring of current rights and
obligations and for the future management of the company. During judicial management and the execution of the rescue plan, control of the
company's assets vests in the judicial manager and directors lose their powers of
management. Judicial managers should be encouraged to make a success of judicial
management by providing that the judicial manager cannot be appointed as the
liquidator in a subsequent liquidation. Furthermore, the burden of the costs of judicial
management could be eased by providing a more flexible system for the remuneration
of the judicial manager.
A statutory business rescue procedure interacts with other components of an
insolvency regime and other areas of law. In order to optimise the positive effects of a
business rescue procedure certain changes are proposed regarding statutory provisions
on insolvent trading, the phenomenon of phoenix companies, section 311 of the
Companies Act and tax legislation. The thesis also proposes a smooth transition from
judicial management to voluntary liquidation.
The thesis has an annexure with draft legislation to give effect to the principal changes
proposed by it for the Companies Act. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geregtelike bestuur is reeds sedert 1926 deel van die Suid-Afrikaanse
maatskappyereg. Dit is ingestel as 'n prosedure om maatskappye van ondergang te red.
Geregtelike bestuur het sedertdien min verander. Dit is in skerp teenstelling met ander
jurisdiksies wat die afgelope paar dekades toegewy gewerk het aan prosedures om
korporasies en besighede te red.
Hierdie tesis ondersoek die toepaslikheid van geregtelike bestuur as 'n prosedure om
in die huidige Suid-Afrikaanse omstandighede besighede van ondergang te red en
vergelyk dit met soortgelyke prosedures in Engeland en Australië.
Moderne ekonomieë se afhanklikheid van krediet, die globalisering van markte en die
toename in mededinging tussen ondernemings dra by tot die wisselvallige ekonomiese
omstandighede van 'n onderneming. Die redding van lewensvatbare ondernemings is
gevolglik 'n belangrike doelstelling van korporatiewe insolvensiereg. Daarom is 'n
prosedure soos geregtelike bestuur om ondernemings te red 'n onontbeerlike element
van korporatiewe insolvensiereg.
Geregtelike bestuur moet egter hervorm word. Geregtelike bestuur het verskeie
tekortkominge waaronder hoë regskoste, die aanstelling van professionele
likwidateurs as persone om ondernemings te red, die gebrek aan 'n kultuur om
ondernemings te red, die afwesigheid van 'n goedgekeurde reddingsplan, die hantering
van geregtelike bestuur as 'n buitengewone remedie in korporatiewe insolvensiereg en
die gebruik van artikel 311 van die Maatskappywet as 'n meganisme om maatskappye
van likwidasie te red. Die tesis stel voor dat geregtelike bestuur met 'n blote direksiebesluit in werking
gestel word. Dit is minder belemmerend as die hofbevel waarmee geregtelike bestuur
tans begin word. Geregtelike bestuur stel'n moratorium van beperkte duur in werking
waartydens geen geregtelike prosesse teen die maatskappyaanhangig gemaak of
voortgesit kan word nie. Dit gee die maatskappy die nodige grasie om 'n reddingsplan
uit te werk en te implementeer.
Opsomming
Geregtelike bestuur is reeds sedert 1926 deel van die Suid-Afrikaanse
maatskappyereg. Dit is ingestel as 'n prosedure om maatskappye van ondergang te red.
Geregtelike bestuur het sedertdien min verander. Dit is in skerp teenstelling met ander
jurisdiksies wat die afgelope paar dekades toegewy gewerk het aan prosedures om
korporasies en besighede te red.
Hierdie tesis ondersoek die toepaslikheid van geregtelike bestuur as 'n prosedure om
in die huidige Suid-Afrikaanse omstandighede besighede van ondergang te red en
vergelyk dit met soortgelyke prosedures in Engeland en Australië.
Moderne ekonomieë se afhanklikheid van krediet, die globalisering van markte en die
toename in mededinging tussen ondernemings dra by tot die wisselvallige ekonomiese
omstandighede van 'n onderneming. Die redding van lewensvatbare ondernemings is
gevolglik 'n belangrike doelstelling van korporatiewe insolvensiereg. Daarom is 'n
prosedure soos geregtelike bestuur om ondernemings te red 'n onontbeerlike element
van korporatiewe insolvensiereg.
Geregtelike bestuur moet egter hervorm word. Geregtelike bestuur het verskeie
tekortkominge waaronder hoë regskoste, die aanstelling van professionele
likwidateurs as persone om ondernemings te red, die gebrek aan 'n kultuur om
ondernemings te red, die afwesigheid van 'n goedgekeurde reddingsplan, die hantering
van geregtelike bestuur as 'n buitengewone remedie in korporatiewe insolvensiereg en
die gebruik van artikel 311 van die Maatskappywet as 'n meganisme om maatskappye
van likwidasie te red.
Nadat geregtelike bestuur in aanvang geneem het behoort die krediteure die mag te hê
om oor die toekoms van die maatskappy te besluit. Krediteure sou 'n reddingsplan (voorberei deur die geregtelike bestuurder) wat vir die herstrukturering van die regte
en verpligtinge van die maatskappy en vir sy toekomstige bestuur voorsiening maak
kon aanvaar of verwerp.
Gedurende geregtelike bestuur en die uitvoering van die reddingsplan vestig die
beheer oor die bates van die maatskappy in die geregtelike bestuurder. Die direksie
verloor terselfdertyd alle bestuursbevoegdhede. Geregtelike bestuurders behoort
aangemoedig te word om 'n sukses van die geregtelike bestuur te maak deur te bepaal
dat 'n geregtelike bestuurder nie as likwidateur aangestel kan word indien die
maatskappy uiteindelik gelikwideer word nie. Die las van hoë koste kan verlig word
deur 'n buigsame stelsel van vergoeding vir die geregtelike bestuurder in te stel.
'n Statutêre reddingsprosedure vir ondernemings staan in wisselwerking met ander
elemente van korporatiewe insolvensiereg en ander regsgebiede. Ten einde die
positiewe uitwerking van 'n reddingsprosedure vir ondernemings te optimaliseer word
sekere veranderinge ten opsigte van die wetgewing met betrekking tot handeldryf in
insolvente omstandighede, die verskynsel van "phoenix" maatskappye, artikel 311 van
die Maatskappywet en belastingwetgewing voorgestel. Die tesis stelook 'n gladde
oorskakeling van geregtelike bestuur na vrywillige likwidasie voor.
Die tesis sluit ook 'n aanhangsel met voorgestelde wetgewing in om uitvoering te gee
aan die belangrikste veranderinge aan die Maatskappywet wat in die tesis voorgestel
word.
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The consequences of contracts concluded by unassisted minors : a comparative evaluationWatt, Ilze Jr 12 1900 (has links)
Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / Includes bibliography / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: It is a general principle of the law of South Africa that an unassisted contract of a
minor is unenforceable against the minor. Although it binds the other party, the minor
is not bound. The minor will only be bound if the contract is enforced by his guardian,
or if the contract is ratified by the child after attaining majority. This implies that the
other party is in a rather unfortunate position, since the effectiveness of the contract
will remain uncertain until the guardian of the minor decides to enforce or repudiate
the contract, or until the minor ratifies it after attaining majority. The other party may
not resile from the contract during this interim period.
Should it be established that the contract has failed, the question arises to what
extent the parties are obliged to return performances made in purported fulfilment of
the contract. In terms of the law of South Africa, the prevailing view is that these claims are based
on unjustified enrichment. However, the extent of these claims differs. In principle,
both parties’ liability will be limited to the amount remaining in its estate, according to
the defence of loss of enrichment. But the application of the defence is subject to an
exception that does not apply equally to the parties. Had the other party known or
should the other party have known that the enrichment was sine causa, yet
continued to part with it, he will be held liable for the full enrichment. However, this
exception does not apply to the enrichment liability of minors. In other words,
whether the minor knew or should have known that the enrichment was sine causa,
he would still be allowed to raise the defence of loss of enrichment. Furthermore, the
rules applicable to minors’ enrichment liability applies to all minors, and no scope is
left to consider the specific circumstances of each minor.
It is accepted that there are two competing principles relating to minors’ unassisted
contracts. On the one hand, the law must protect the minor from his immaturity and
lack of experience. On the other hand, the law must protect the interests of the other
party. It will be seen throughout this study that the determination of how to balance
these competing principles is not an easy task. The key aim of this thesis is to investigate the principles governing the unwinding of
unassisted minors’ contracts in South Africa. A comparison will be made with the principles applied in other legal systems, in order to identify similarities and
differences in the approaches and, to establish what underlies the differences in the
various approaches.
Germany, England and Scotland have been chosen for comparison for various
reasons. First, they share some historical roots, and they represent three major legal
traditions, namely the civil law, common law and mixed legal systems, of which
South Africa also forms part. Secondly, both England and Scotland have
experienced recent legislative reform in this regard, which implies that their
respective legal systems should be in line with modern tendencies, and
consequently they may provide a valuable framework for possible reform in South
Africa. In Germany, although mainly regulated by rather older legislation, there have
been interesting developments in the determination of consequences of failed
contracts. Hellwege has argued that the unwinding of all contracts should be treated similarly,
regardless of the unwinding factor. He has also suggested that in order to prevent
the accumulation of risk on one party, and to ensure that the risk is placed on the
person who is in control of the object, the defence of loss of enrichment should not
be available to any party. His reasoning and suggestions is dealt with in more detail
in this thesis.
This study argues that the current strict approach applied under South African law
regarding minors’ unassisted contracts needs to be re-considered. The current
approach is dated and is not in line with modern tendencies and legislation. No
proper consideration is given to minors’ development into adulthood or personal
circumstances of the parties. It is submitted that in the process of re-consideration,
some form of acknowledgement must be given to minors’ development towards
mature adults. It is submitted that this would be possible by introducing a more
flexible approach to regulate the enforceability and unwinding of minors’ unassisted
contracts. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING Dit is ‘n algemene beginsel van die Suid-Afrikaanse reg dat ‘n kontrak aangegaan
deur ‘n minderjarige sonder die nodige bystand van sy ouer of voog onafdwingbaar
is teenoor die minderjarige. Die minderjarige sal slegs gebonde wees indien die
kontrak afgedwing word deur sy voog, of indien die minderjarige self die kontrak
ratifiseer nadat hy meerderjarig word. Dit impliseer dat die ander party in ‘n
ongunstige posisie is, aangesien die werking van die kontrak onseker is totdat die
voog besluit om die kontrak af te dwing of te repudieer, of totdat die minderjarige dit
ratifiseer nadat hy meerderjarig word. Gedurende hierdie interim periode mag die
ander party nie terugtree uit hierdie kontrak nie.
Sou dit bepaal word dat die kontrak misluk het, ontstaan die vraag tot watter mate
die partye verplig word om prestasies wat reeds gemaak is, terug te gee. In terme van die Suid-Afrikaanse reg is die meerderheidsopinie dat hierdie eise
gebaseer is op onregverdige verryking, maar die omvang van die partye se eise
verskil. In beginsel is beide partye se aanspreeklikheid beperk tot die bedrag wat
steeds in sy boedel beskikbaar is, weens die beskikbaarheid van die verweer van
verlies van verryking. Maar die toepassing van die verweer is onderworpe aan ‘n
uitsondering wat nie op beide partye geld nie. Indien die ander party geweet het of
moes geweet het dat die verryking sine causa was, maar steeds afstand gedoen het
van die verryking, sal hy aanspreeklik gehou word vir die volle verryking. Hierdie reel
is egter nie van toepassing op die minderjarige se verrykingsaanspreeklikheid nie.
Met ander woorde, indien die minderjarige geweet het of moes geweet het dat die
verryking sine causa was, en steeds afstand gedoen het van die verryking, sal hy
steeds die verweer van verlies van verryking kan opper. Bowendien, die reels van
toepassing op minderjariges se verrykingsaanspreeklikheid is van toepassing op alle
minderjariges, en geen ruimte word gelaat om die spesifieke omstandighede van
elke minderjarige in ag te neem nie. Wanneer ons kontrakte aangegaan deur minderjariges sonder die nodige bystand,
oorweeg, word dit algemeen aanvaar dat daar twee kompeterende beginsels van
belang is. Aan die een kant moet die reg die minderjarige beskerm teen sy
onvolwassenheid en gebrek aan ondervinding. Aan die ander kant moet die reg ook
die belange van die ander party beskerm. Dit sal deurlopend in hierdie studie gesien word dat die behoorlike balansering van hierdie twee beginsels nie ‘n maklike taak is
nie.
Die hoofdoel van hierdie tesis is om die beginsels wat die afdwingbaarheid en
ontbinding van minderjariges se kontrakte in Suid-Afrika, wat aangegaan is sonder
die nodige bystand van ‘n voog, te ondersoek. ‘n Vergelyking sal getref word met die
beginsels wat in ander regstelsels toegepas word, om sodoende die ooreenkomste
en verskille te identifiseer, asook om te bepaal wat hierdie verskille onderlê.
Duitsland, Engeland en Skotland is gekies as vergelykende jurisdiksies vir verskeie
redes, naamlik hulle historiese gebondenheid en die feit dat hulle drie groot
regstradisies (die kontinentale regstelsel, die gemenereg en die gemengde
regstelsel) verteenwoordig. Bowendien het beide Engeland en Skotland onlangse
wetgewende hervorming ondergaan in hierdie sfeer van die reg, wat impliseer dat
hierdie regstelsels waarskynlik in lyn sal wees met moderne tendense. Gevolglik kan
hulle ‘n waardevolle raamwerk skep waarbinne moontlike hervorming in Suid-Afrika
mag plaasvind. Alhoewel Duitsland grotendeels nog deur ouer wetgewing gereguleer
word, het dit ook ‘n reeks interessante verwikkelinge ondergaan in die bepaling van
die gevolge van kontrakte wat misluk het. Hellwege argumenteer dat die ontbinding van alle kontrakte dieselfde hanteer moet
word, ongeag die onderliggende ontbindende faktor. Hy stel ook voor dat om te
verhoed dat die risiko op slegs een party geplaas word, en om te verseker dat dit
eerder gedra word deur daardie party wat beheer het oor die voorwerp, die verweer
van verlies van verryking nie vir enige party beskikbaar moet wees nie. Sy
redenering en voorstelle word in meer besonderhede in hierdie studie bespreek.
Hierdie studie argumenteer dat die huidige streng benadering wat in Suid-Afrika
toegepas word met betrekking tot kontrakte aangegaan deur minderjariges sonder
die nodige bystand van ‘n voog, heroorweeg moet word. Die huidige benadering is
verouderd en is nie lyn met moderne tendense en wetgewing nie. Bowendien word
geen behoorlike oorweging gegee aan minderjariges se ontwikkeling tot
volwassenheid nie, en die partye se persoonlike omstandighede word ook nie in ag
geneem nie. Daar word argumenteer dat in die proses van heroorweging, ‘n mate
van erkenning gegee moet word aan minderjariges se persoonlike ontwikkeling.
Daar word verder argumenteer dat ‘n meer buigsame benadering toegepas moet word ten opsigte van die regulering van die afdwingbaarheid en ontbinding van
hierdie kontrakte.
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Die grondslag van kontraktuele gebondenheidOlivier, Pierre J. J. 04 1900 (has links)
Thesis (LLD)--Stellenbosch University, 2004 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An overview of the historical development of contract law and its underlying
theory, spanning from Roman times to the present day, and in Western
European and Anglo American systems, shows that the gradually developing
will theory dominated in the early nineteenth century.
It was, however, also in the nineteenth century that the first cracks in
this theory were observed. First, sociological, political and economic factors,
brought about by the Industrial Revolution, the rise of socialism and of labour,
required a new, more humane approach. Secondly, with the emergence of a
new economic system, new technical problems came to the fore: how were
problems of mistake, interpretation, implied terms and derogation to be
solved, unless reliance was placed, in each case, on untenable fictions?
Thus, towards the last quarter of the nineteenth century, an intense
and unparalleled juristic debate ensued, mainly in Europe, but later also in
England and the United States of America. New approaches, e.g. that a strict
and uncompromising declaration be followed, was proposed. The outcome of
this debate was the emergence of the so-called confidence theory. The basis
of this approach is that, whatever a person's real intention may have been, he
so conducts himself as to lead the other party, as a reasonable person, to
believe that the first party has assented to the contract as proposed or
understood by the second party, the first party is bound by the impression he
created. The principle was clearly stated by Blackburn J in Smith v Hughes
(1871) LR 6 OB 597, which has since become one of the famous dicta in the
law of contract, and forms part of the English law. It should be stressed that the Blackburn approach was not alien to
Europe, where the gradual and natural development of the common law was
overtaken by codification
The French Codification retained the pure will theory. Under the Dutch
code, the so-called will-reliance system was developed, akin to the Blackburn
approach. In German law, however, the De Groot view was followed: the
mistaken party was permitted to 'resile' from the 'contract' but under obligation
to compensate the 'innocent' party's negative interest.
In South Africa, the basic point of departure is the will theory but
supplemented by the confidence theory This system is made possible by our
law of procedure, where two remedies, the justus error approach and the
contractual consent approach are available. As both these remedies have the
same objective, viz. to protect the legitimate interests of the party that was
misled, they require the same substantive law requirements.
The confidence theory has imbedded itself so deeply in South African,
European and English law, that it is now recognized by some as the key, not
only to the solution of the dissensus problem, but also in cases of
interpretation, supplementation and derogation.
The combination of will and reliance are the foundation stones of
contractual liability. These two principles have developed (and are still
developing) from society's pre-positive, moral, ethical, political, economic,
religious and other values, which have been and are still being absorbed in
the body of legal rules.
This process of development is informed by the norms and rules
relating to public policy, public interest, the bani mores and good faith. These norms and rules are recognized and applied in the legal systems of the
United States of America, England and Europe. They form part of our law, but
unfortunately our courts are extremely conservative in recognizing and
applying them. If we wish to obtain and sustain social and contractual justice,
more weight should be accorded to these values. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Oorsig van die geskiedkundige ontwikkeling van die kontraktereg en die
onderliggende teorie daarvan vanaf die Romeinse tyd tot vandag in sowel
Wes-Europese as die Anglo-Amerikaanse stelsels, toon aan dat die
geleidelik-ontwikkelende wilsteorie in die negentiende eeu die botoon gevoer
het.
Dis egter ook gedurende die negentiende eeu dat die eerste krake in
hierdie teorie waargeneem is. Eerstens het sosiologiese, politieke en
ekonomiese faktore, veroorsaak deur die Industriële Revolusie, 'n nuwe, meer
menslike benadering geverg. Tweedens het nuwe, tegniese probleme
ontstaan met die opkoms van 'n nuwe ekonomiese sisteem: hoe moes
probleme soos dwaling, uitleg, stilswyende bepalings en derogasie opgelos
word, tensy die oplossing in elke geval op onhoudbare fiksies moes berus?
In die laaste kwart van die negentiende eeu het derhalwe 'n intense en
ongeëwenaarde juridiese debat ontstaan, hoofsaaklik in Europa, maar later
ook in Engeland en die VSA Nuwe benaderings, bv. dat slegs gelet word op
die eksterne verklaring ter uitsluiting van enige subjektiewe bedoeling, is
voorgestel. Die resultaat van hierdie debat was die ontwikkeling van die
vertrouensteorie. Die basis van hierdie benadering is dat wat ookal 'n mens
se werklike bedoeling mag gewees het, hy so opgetree het dat die ander
party, redelikerwys, oortuig was dat die eerste party toegestem het tot die
kontrak soos voorgestelof verstaan deur die tweede party die eerste party
dan gebonde is aan die indruk wat hy geskep het. Die beginsel is duidelik
gestel deur Blackburn R in Smith v Hughes (1871) LR 6 OB 597. Dit moet benadruk word dat die Blackburn benadering nie vreemd aan
Europa was nie, waar die geleidelike en natuurlike ontwikkeling van die
gemene reg deur kodifikasie kortgeknip is.
Die Franse Kodifikasie het die suiwer wilsteorie behou. Die
sogenaamde wils-vertrouens stelsel, soortgelyk aan die Blackburnbenadering,
het onder die Nederlandse Kode ontwikkel, maar in Duitsland is
die De Groot-benadering gevolg: die party wat homself vergis het, is toegelaat
om uit die 'kontrak' terug te tree, maar onder die verpligting om die
'onskuldige' party se negatiewe interesse te vergoed.
In Suid-Afrika is die basiese vertrekpunt die wilsteorie, maar aangevul
deur die vertrouensteorie. Dit word moontlik gemaak deur ons prosesreg,
waar twee remedies, die Justus error-benadering en die
wilsooreenstemmings-benadering beskikbaar is. Aangesien beide hierdie
remedies dieselfde mikpunt het, naamlik om die regmatige belange van die
misleide party te beskerm, verg hulle dieselfde materiële regsvereistes.
Die vertrouensteorie is so diep in die Suid-Afrikaanse, Europese en
Engelse reg ingebed dat dit nou deur sommige mense erken word as die
sleutel, nie alleen tot die oplossing van die dissensus probleem nie, maar ook
in gevalle van uitleg, aanvulling en derogasie.
Die kombinasie van wil en vertroue is die hoekstene van kontraktuele
aanspreeklikheid. Hierdie twee begrippe het ontwikkel (en ontwikkel nog
steeds) uit die gemeenskap se voor-positiewe, morele, etiese, staatkundige,
ekonomiese, godsdiens- en ander waardes, wat in die regstelselopgeneem
en beliggaam is en word. Hierdie ontwikkelingsproses berus op die norme en reëls betreffende
openbare beleid, openbare belang, die boni mores en goeie trou en word
erken en toegepas in die regstelsels van die VSA, Engeland en Europa. Dit
maak deel uit van ons reg, maar ongelukkig is ons howe aartskonserwatief in
die erkenning en toepassing daarvan. As ons maatskaplike en kontraktuele
geregtigheid wil bekom en volhou, moet groter gewig aan hierdie waardes
vergun word.
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Is the European short selling regulation a justifiable response to the concerns posed by short selling?Howell, Elizabeth January 2015 (has links)
Short selling came onto the centre stage during the recent financial crisis when the collapse in price of financial listed securities after the demise of Lehman Brothers led to the introduction of a number of temporary short selling bans. In Europe however it was the commencement of the recent European sovereign debt crisis that was the true stimulus for proposing new short selling rules, the culmination of which was the introduction of the European Short Selling Regulation (the 'Regulation'). The thesis asks whether the Regulation is a justifiable response to the concerns posed by short selling. Such issues are measured against the relevant economic literature that almost overwhelmingly demonstrates that short selling contributes to market efficiency, that restrictions generally make markets less efficient and that constraints do not achieve the desired objective of stabilising prices. The thesis then analyses the political economy and backdrop to the Regulation’s introduction that largely dictated the shape of the final rules. The precise legislative choices made by Europe, including with respect to sovereign credit default swaps, are analysed, and (where relevant) there is a comparative element with a consideration of the US short sale regulations. These rules are used as a contrast and as a means of commenting more effectively on the European provisions. The doctorate concludes that the Regulation is not a justifiable response to policymakers' concerns and that the rules have suffered from the politicisation of the legislative process. The thesis suggests that short-term political point scoring has triumphed over the long-term benefits of market efficiency and that short sellers are now the subjects of highly technical rules that will negatively impair on market efficiency. Although, with time, parties may learn to use the new rules to their advantage, this does not justify the introduction of unreasonable rules in the first place.
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Subsequent use of documents disclosed in civil proceedingsGibbons, Susan M. C. January 2002 (has links)
Rule 31.22 of the Civil Procedure Rules 1998 provides, as a general rule, that those who receive documents through disclosure during civil proceedings may use them only for the purpose of the proceedings at hand. The general rule is subject to three exceptions, and judges have discretion to authorise subsequent use for other purposes. However, the foundational presupposition underpinning CPR 31.22 is that subsequent use, generally speaking, is improper. The thesis has two primary aims: (1) to demonstrate that the rule governing subsequent use (as developed in the case law) is theoretically and practically flawed, and that maintaining a blanket, general rule against subsequent use is unsound in principle, unjust, and procedurally inefficient; and (2) to generate a normative and procedural framework suitable for reform. Part I outlines the content, origins and operation of CPR 31.22. Through historical analysis, it suggests that presumptively categorising as improper all forms of subsequent use beyond the original litigation contradicts traditional authority. By identifying and examining the three principal rationales said to justify the modern rule, it argues that none affords sound justification. By analysing the exceptions to the rule, including judicial discretion, it seeks to show that such measures are incapable of remedying the defects in the underlying rule. Part II attempts to formulate a theoretically defensible, procedurally viable model for reforming CPR 31.22. It suggests that the presumption against subsequent use should be abolished, and the law reoriented around two central norms: the harm principle and a balancing approach. It tests this theoretical model by applying it to seven paradigmatic categories of subsequent use. Finally, it outlines a possible structure for procedural reform.
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Government beyond law : exploring charity regulation and spaces of order in ChinaKloeden, Anna Jane January 2011 (has links)
This thesis examines the regulatory landscape relating to private orphanages, both foreign and domestically run, in China, and the formal and informal relationships between such homes and government which structure this space of order. Part A introduces the contextual factors shaping the gradual socialisation and privatisation of charitable activity generally, and the child welfare-specific social, economic and cultural dynamics influencing the emergence of private orphanages. Parts B and C set out the ethnographic findings of field-work examining the practical operations of private orphanages, and a theoretical analysis of the various interactions occurring with government orphanages, and local and central officials. It is shown that the ostensible government monopoly on institutional care of orphans, established in law and policy and consistent with the objective of maintaining tight control over civic organisations and religious-based and foreign-led activities, is belied by a proliferation of private orphanages emerging to address gaps in state welfare provision. This has led to the emergence of a delicate balance between top-down official discourse, rhetoric and law, and bottom-up pragmatic considerations. Further, the prima facie 'missing role' of the state in law, regulation and policy-making is contradicted in practice by evidence of a complexity of highly paternalistic state-orphanage relationships occurring beyond the normative framework of official laws and policies. Such extra-legal state-society interaction is characterised by informal, flexible and paternalistic negotiations with local officials, and mediated by structures of power and capacity. 'Law beyond government' and 'government beyond law' are central features of the multidimensional maintenance of this space of order, and point to several defining points of distinction of law as a cultural notion in the Chinese context, including a marked preoccupation with legitimacy over legality and paternalistic discipline and discretion over impartial adjudication.
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