Abstract With the Introduction of the internet and human technological advancement, our everyday lives have changed dramatically over the past 20 years and because of this, how we communicate, form social networks and purchase or sell goods have also developed. In the light of this, we have completed this thesis which concerns the influence of the internet and the possibilities of forming long lasting relationships between businesses and customers through what we have described as ‘Locking in’ the customer. This is done by forming ‘Psychological Switching Costs’ that make the cognitive process of switching too expensive or un-wanted by the customer. In order to develop an understanding of this we saw it as prudent to interview senior managers of businesses that operate mainly on the internet to discover if they attempt such strategic moves in, ‘Locking in’ customers. Thus forming the research question; How are Companies based on the internet using Psychological Switching Costs as a strategy to Lock in the customers? The process by which the information was collected was through a qualitative method and semi-structured interviews. We found from the respondents that were interviewed that when it comes to operating a business on the internet it is important to consider, Transparency, Two-way communication, Simplicity, Agility and Flexibility in creating a loyal customer who is positively locked in. These were the strategies considered by the respondents to have an effect on customers. One of the most interesting points that were made was that if the customer was locked in to the business, the business did not have to be as dynamic. Thus, according to the respondents, Psychological Switching Costs do have an influence on how they form strategy to Lock In customers. In that it can be beneficial to attempt to Lock in customers rather than develop other Dynamic Capabilities. This factor seems very relevant when considering communication, agility and flexibility, in that by forming relationships and strategies directly to the customer these companies are creating something that is difficult to substitute, un-imitable for their competitors and convenient to the customer.

The purpose of this thesis is to compare policy instruments with respect to cost efficiency, income distribution effects, technological change and violation incentives. The policy instruments under study are quota, charge and permit market system. The analysis is applied to Gotland, an island in the Baltic where the content of nitrate in drinking water is high. As in many other agricultural districts, the source of pollution is farmers’ use of nitrogen. According to the results, a permit market performs best with respect to cost efficiency and income distribution effects. The empirical calculations show that a permit market system may amount to half the cost of the most expensive alternative. All three policy instruments are found to encourage technological change, although to different degrees. In most instances the incentives for technological adjustments are highest for the charge and permit market systems. The incentives to violate regulations may be the smallest under a permit market system. But they can also be higher and of the same magnitude as under a charge system. The main reason for this variation is that the occurrence of illegal use of nitrogen affects the marketclearing price of permits. This, in turn, may reduce the economic incentives to violate regulations of a permit market system. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögsk., 1989

Companies need different information about their operations, so that they can make better decisions and be more effective in the business world. One way to obtain that information is through looking at how costs are assigned to different cost objects, such as products or services. Of special interest is the allocation of indirect costs, because if these costs make up an important part of an organisation, then grasping them will help the firm be more competitive and respond better to customers and their needs. One method of allocating indirect costs is called activity based costing, or ABC, and it looks upon what activities that are being performed by a company, how much they cost based on resource usage, what drives the costs, and most importantly, it assigns these ex-penses to products/services. The aim of this thesis has been to investigate whether the ABC method can be applied in an event organising company. In order to reach the purpose we have used the example of Elmia AB, an event and trade show organiser situated in Jönköping, Sweden. The focus of our investigation was exhibition stands used in trade shows. We have come to the conclusion that activity based costing is applicable when it comes to event organisers in the sense that it is possible to identify major activities and depict re-sources. However, problems emerge when trying to estimate costs of resources because it is hard to know in advance what customers want, and therefore one cannot clearly distin-guish or set fixed and variable costs, nor can one easily cope with problems of unused ca-pacity, that is resources that are supplied but not used. This is especially the case with cus-tomised exhibition stands. The process is somewhat easier when it comes to standardised offerings, because they are less complicated since they are already set and cannot be much altered by the customers. Furthermore, cost drivers can be applied in this setting, at least theoretically because they provide help in determining what processes the customers might find important. On the other hand, they might be rather difficult to measure. Finally, the actual assigning of costs to cost objects is hard, because for the complex solutions, one cannot easily find common activities across different stands, but this can be easier to do when exhibition stand pack-ages are standardised and demand is better traceable. We have based our results on one company as a generalisation of event organisers as a whole, and we can argue that the example that we have chosen can be a good representa-tive of this particular branch of the service industry, because it shows how important indi-rect costs are to this dynamic business and also it reveals the importance of customers and their role when applying activity based costing to the environment. However, in order to have a complete conclusion with respect to our aim, more research is needed in other event and trade show organising firms because there are company specific situations in terms of size, structure, culture, etc, of a company that makes ABC a special case that changes ac-cording to different objectives of different users.

This project examines how undergraduate and graduate students at a university in the Southern United States utilize and conceptualize volunteering at the beginning of the second decade of the 21st century, a time when volunteerism is on the rise despite a severe economic crisis. I was interested in taking an anthropological approach to explore the reasons that people volunteered as well as how their decisions about volunteering might be impacted by different aspects of their identity, including their ethnicity, gender identity, student status, and affiliation with student groups. Based on in-depth interviews and surveys conducted with five undergraduate and five graduate students, I learned about their motivations for volunteering and their perceptions about participating in volunteer activities.

The removal of the transportation subsidy on western Canadian grain has resulted in a relative shift in competitiveness from grain to livestock production in Saskatchewan. Feedlot managers indicated that they fed cattle at a lower cost than their Alberta competitors. They suggested their feeding advantage is in the range of $45 to $75 per animal. Yet this supposed feeding advantage has not resulted in an increase in cattle being finished in the province. In fact statistics show that there has been a decrease in the number of cattle finished in Saskatchewan since the removal of the transportation subsidy. This thesis investigated potential hindrances to developing feedlots in Saskatchewan. Interviews with 17 Saskatchewan feedlot managers were conducted in 2001. These feedlot managers suggested that lack of financing was a hindrance to feedlot development in Saskatchewan. They sited provincial land and labour laws, a grain production bias and feeding risk as potential reasons for lack of investment in the feedlot sector. The interviews with these 17 feedlot managers led to an investigation of transaction costs in buying and selling cattle. A theoretical framework was developed in this thesis to measure transaction costs. Then some empirical evidence was calculated from transaction cost estimates provided by five finishing feedlots that indicated larger feedlots have lower transaction costs in buying and selling cattle than smaller feedlots.

The removal of the transportation subsidy on western Canadian grain has resulted in a relative shift in competitiveness from grain to livestock production in Saskatchewan. Feedlot managers indicated that they fed cattle at a lower cost than their Alberta competitors. They suggested their feeding advantage is in the range of $45 to $75 per animal. Yet this supposed feeding advantage has not resulted in an increase in cattle being finished in the province. In fact statistics show that there has been a decrease in the number of cattle finished in Saskatchewan since the removal of the transportation subsidy. This thesis investigated potential hindrances to developing feedlots in Saskatchewan. Interviews with 17 Saskatchewan feedlot managers were conducted in 2001. These feedlot managers suggested that lack of financing was a hindrance to feedlot development in Saskatchewan. They sited provincial land and labour laws, a grain production bias and feeding risk as potential reasons for lack of investment in the feedlot sector. The interviews with these 17 feedlot managers led to an investigation of transaction costs in buying and selling cattle. A theoretical framework was developed in this thesis to measure transaction costs. Then some empirical evidence was calculated from transaction cost estimates provided by five finishing feedlots that indicated larger feedlots have lower transaction costs in buying and selling cattle than smaller feedlots.

Canada has been recognized as the largest exporter of flax seed in the world. Currently, very little flax straw is further processed, despite its potential as a value added product, with only about 7-10% of Canadian flax seed producers harvesting residual flax straw rather than burning the straw. A traditional use of flax straw has been for the production of fibre for the linen industry. Interest in flax fibre has been rekindled with the impetus to seek out bioproducts that replace non-renewal resources and provide value-added opportunities for agricultural producers. Flax fibre also has a range of potential uses in automotive parts, geotextiles, insulation material, etc. Despite this potential, the Canadian flax fibre sector remains largely underdeveloped, with fledgling supply chains and lack of investment in the necessary processing capacity. This paper develops a framework for analysing the relational exchanges at different stage of the supply chain to determine if the paucity in investment is the result of prohibitively high exchange costs. A number of distinct stages in the flax fibre supply chain can be identified: farmers producing flax seed and/or straw; processors who extract the natural fibre from the straw; and manufacturers who use the fibre in their products. The paper develops a framework that draws together insights from Transaction Cost Economics, Agency Theory and Bargaining Theory. The role of institutions in facilitating quality measurement and providing participants with information is also considered. The theoretical framework identifies asset specificity, agency measurement costs, bargaining power and under-developed institutions as key factors in the development of the flax fibre sector. From the theoretical framework, a set of propositions is developed that examine the anticipated effect of these factors on vertical coordination in the sector. The theoretical propositions are explored through a series of semi-structured interviews with parties at each stage of the supply chain (producers, fibre processors, final manufacturers), as well as with industry experts. Information from the interviews is used to identify the transaction characteristics and the institutional framework characterizing the flax fibre sector in Canada. This is analysed through a comparative case study approach with the flax fibre sector in Europe, and the wool fibre sector in New Zealand as an example of a fully developed and long-standing fibre sector. By also noting the different vertical coordination strategies that are present in these supply chains, a connection is drawn between the presence of certain transaction characteristics and the corresponding cost-minimizing exchange relationships. The case studies are used to investigate the propositions developed from the theoretical framework regarding the impact of transaction characteristics on the optimal vertical coordination strategy and the impediments to development and investment in the sector. The propositions developed in the framework are verified to a great extent by the comparative case study. The uncertainty in the exchange environment regarding the future direction of the flax fibre industry and the high measurement costs due to the absent quality and grading regime in the Canadian flax fibre set the two industries apart from each other. Both of these dimensions impact the exchange costs of a transaction and subsequently, the extent to which the parties are closely coordinated. The case studies verify that using a framework to analyze transactions provides additional insights because of the joint consideration of several features of the transaction.

Esta tesis consiste en tres artículos de investigación independientes que analizan diferentes estrategias implementadas en los mercados con competencia imperfecta.El primer articulo presenta un modelo formal que explica algunas de las razones que determinan las empresas producir segundas marcas - productos de perfil relativamente bajo lanzados por las empresas de renombre que deciden introducir diferenciación vertical. El modelo que presentamos incluye dos versiones. En la primera, la competencia en el espacio horizontal tiene lugar entre rivales que producen bienes de calidad alta similar, con diferentes bases de consumidores potenciales. En este caso, la producción de segundas marcas por las empresas intermedias puede surgir como un equilibrio en un juego no-cooperativo. Este resultado está en concordancia con las observaciones empíricas sobre los productores de tamaño medio que producen marcas blancas para atacar al líder del mercado. En la segunda versión del modelo, la competencia horizontal viene de un rival de calidad baja. Aquí, incluso los lideres del mercado pueden producir segundas marcas para protegerse de la competencia en el segmento bajo del mercado. Esto es similar con el propósito de los "fighting brands" comentados en la literatura de management. Finalmente, incluimos un análisis de bienestar para los dos casos.El segundo articulo trata sobre si la entrada es socialmente deseable. Obtenemos resultados opuestos a los obtenidos en los estudios anteriores que apuntan a una tendencia de entrada excesiva. El supuesto crucial que lleva a estos resultados previos es la simetría entre las empresas que ya existen en el mercado y los entrantes potenciales. Nuestro papel, apoyado por las observaciones empíricas en los nuevos mercados privatizados de Europa del Este, permite a los nuevos entrantes que sean mas competitivos. En este caso, tanto para la competencia en cantidad como para la de precios, la entrada puede ser insuficiente desde el punto de vista social. Este papel propone también una herramienta original para regular la entrada.Finalmente, el objetivo del tercer capitulo de la tesis es estudiar los efectos de los costes de sustitución endógenos sobre la eficiencia económica y el bienestar de los consumidores en nuevos contextos económicos a los estudiados hasta ahora por la literatura. El principal resultado de este articulo es que los programas que premian la lealtad de los consumidores (las empresas que endogenizan los costes de sustitución) aumentan la competencia. Nosotros utilizamos un modelo de competencia monopolistica, que elimina el efecto estratégico encontrado en modelos previos de duopolio. El papel también demuestra que la forma de compromiso es irrelevante: una función lineal de descuentos es equivalente al compromiso en precios futuros. Finalmente demostramos que la presencia de costes de sustitución exógenos reduce los incentivos de las empresas de introducir costes de sustitución endógenos. / This thesis consists of three independent pieces of research analysing different strategies implemented in imperfectly competitive markets.The first article of the thesis presents a formal model that explains some of the reasons that lie behind firms' decisions to produce secondary brands. These are lower profile products that well-known brand names launch when decide to introduce vertical differentiation. Two versions of a theoretical model are provided. In the first one, competition in the horizontal space takes place between similar high-quality rivals with different potential customer bases. In this case, production of secondary brands by intermediate firms may emerge as the equilibrium of a non-cooperative game. This is in line with the empirical observations regarding medium size manufacturers that produce private labels in order to attack the brand leader. In the second version of the model, horizontal competition comes from a low-quality rival. Here, even market leaders may produce secondary brands to protect themselves from competition in the low-end of the market. This is similar to the scope of fighting brands discussed in the management literature. Finally, some welfare analysis is provided for the two cases.The second article deals with the social desirability of entry. Previous results in the literature, pointing to a tendency for excessive entry, are reversed. The crucial assumption leading to these results is the symmetry between incumbents and potential entrants. This paper, supported by empirical observations from the newly privatised markets in Eastern Europe, allows for more competitive entrants. In this case, both for quantity and price competition, entry may be insufficient. The paper also proposes an innovative intervention tool to regulate entry.Finally, the third chapter of the thesis analyses the effects of loyalty rewarding pricing schemes on market performance. Unlike previous results in the literature and against the believes of some policy analysts, the main finding of this paper is that these programs enhance competition. Strategic commitment effect, present in duopoly analysis, was crucial in determining the results of previous articles dealing with this issue. This effect is eliminated here by using a monopolistically competitive framework, which leads to a more realistic approach. The paper also shows that, the form of commitment is irrelevant, as a linear discounting rule is equivalent to committing to future prices. Finally, it is proved that the presence of exogenous switching costs reduces firm's incentives to introduce endogenous switching costs.

We consider a portfolio selection problem in the presence of transaction costs. Transaction costs on each asset are assumed to be a convex function of the amount sold or bought. This function can be nondifferentiable in a finite number of points. The objective function of this problem is a sum of a convex twice differentiable function and a separable convex nondifferentiable function. We first consider the problem in the presence of linear constraints and later generalize the results to the case when the constraints are given by the convex piece-wise linear functions. <br /><br /> Due to the special structure, this problem can be replaced by an equivalent differentiable problem in a higher dimension. It's main drawback is efficiency since the higher dimensional problem is computationally expensive to solve. <br /><br /> We propose several alternative ways to solve this problem which do not require introducing new variables or constraints. We derive the optimality conditions for this problem using subdifferentials. First, we generalize an active set method to this class of problems. We solve the problem by considering a sequence of equality constrained subproblems, each subproblem having a twice differentiable objective function. Information gathered at each step is used to construct the subproblem for the next step. We also show how the nonsmoothness can be handled efficiently by using spline approximations. The problem is then solved using a primal-dual interior-point method. <br /><br /> If a higher accuracy is needed, we do a crossover to an active set method. Our numerical tests show that we can solve large scale problems efficiently and accurately.

This dissertation tells the local history of one of Georgia’s earliest all-black accredited high schools, Athens High and Industrial School/Burney-Harris High School (AHIS/BHHS), in an attempt to add to the collective history of the all-black segregated school. The study investigated the Clarke County, Georgia school system, pre- and post- Brown, focusing on the uncovered themes within new research interpretations - the value within the segregated schools, networks among the all-black segregated schools, the costs and consequences of desegregation, and the displacement of black educators. Within the history of black education there is a recent effort to present alternative interpretations concerning the once stigmatized segregated school. Research now focuses on the value that was placed on black segregated schools by the local community, highlighting the schools’ strong leadership, caring teachers, academic curriculum and extra-curricular activities, and supportive community and parents. These factors were researched within AHIS/BHHS and found to have been substantial in assessing value to the school. Additionally, the study researched the involvement of H.T. Edwards, principal of AHIS/BHHS, within the national, state, and local networks determining that through its black principal, professional education associations, and professional development, AHIS/BHHS was a part of a system of networks among black schools. Reflecting the larger research indicating a loss within the black community upon desegregation, my study demonstrated this loss within the black community of Athens as a result of the closing of AHIS/BHHS and the displacement of its educators. The study employed historical methods such as archival data and oral histories.