La corrosion des aciers dans le béton armé conduit à la formation de produits de corrosion (PdC) qui, outre les pertes de section, génère des contraintes mécaniques à l’interface acier/béton qui mènent, à terme, à la fissuration du béton. Le diagnostic de ce type de dégradation est souvent difficile et limite l’évaluation de l’aptitude au service de l’ouvrage, la prédiction de l’évolution des dégradations et le choix adapté d’une méthode de réparation. L’objectif de cette étude est de préciser et de quantifier les relations entre les dégradations internes dues à la corrosion de l’armature (formation de PdC et fissuration du béton) et les dégradations externes (fissuration du béton).Un programme expérimental a été défini pour appréhender ces mécanismes de dégradations. La corrosion des armatures des corps d'épreuve en béton armé confectionnés dans le cadre de cette étude a été générée de manière artificielle et accélérée en présence d'ions chlorure sous un courant imposé en considérant trois densités de courant (50,100 et 200 µA/cm²) et différentes durées.Les caractérisations électrochimiques avant et après corrosion accélérée ont permis de démontrer le passage de la corrosion passive à active des armatures dans le béton à l'échelle macroscopique. L'analyse au MEB des PdC créés à l’interface acier/béton (échelle microscopique) a montré une hétérogénéité importante de ces PdC autour de l'armature, en termes de répartition et d'épaisseurs (entre 0 et 1584 µm). Cette hétérogénéité peut s'expliquer par l'évolution des zones anodiques et cathodiques étant donné la dissymétrie géométrique des corps d’épreuve, les conditions de l'essai accéléré qui engendrent des environnements différents (gradients d'humidité, d'ions chlorure et d'oxygène) et la nature du matériau béton (granulats, porosité).La fissuration interne (orientation, ouverture et longueur de fissures) et externe (ouverture maximale de fissure) du béton d’enrobage induite par la formation des PdC a été analysée. Les faciès de fissuration internes sont constitués d’une à cinq fissures réparties en trois groupes. Les premier et second groupes rassemblent les fissures horizontales et les fissures verticales progressant des côtés de plus petit enrobage. Le troisième groupe est formé des fissures obliques situées du côté opposé aux fissures horizontales. Les ouvertures de fissures internes sont comprises entre 0,1 et 0,4 mm et leurs longueurs entre 1 et 3 cm. Les ouvertures de fissures externes maximales, localisées sur les faces du faible enrobage, varient entre 0,1 et 0,7 mm.L’effort maximum appliqué durant les essais d’arrachement diminue en fonction du taux de corrosion, mais ces taux se sont révélés trop faibles pour influencer la loi de l’interface acier/béton. Le mécanisme prépondérant de rupture observé est l’éclatement du béton d’enrobage qui est resté inchangé avec le niveau de corrosion.Un scénario de « cause à effet » entre la corrosion de l’armature et la dégradation mécanique du béton a été proposé en prenant en compte l'ensemble des résultats.A partir des nombreuses données expérimentales acquises, deux modèles ont été élaborés. Un premier modèle a été développé pour expliquer l’initiation et le développement de la corrosion des aciers. Les résultats numériques permettent de déterminer l’instant d’amorçage de la corrosion selon la densité de courant.Une deuxième modélisation qui a pour objectif d’analyser le comportement mécanique du béton armé corrodé a été mise en place. Les résultats ont montré que la seule prise en compte des épaisseurs de PdC (donnée d'entrée expérimentale) n'était pas suffisante pour obtenir un résultat numérique en adéquation avec le faciès de fissuration interne obtenu expérimentalement. Dans une seconde étape, la prise en compte de nouvelles répartitions des épaisseurs des PdC a permis d'améliorer la concordance entre les résultats numériques et expérimentaux / Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete generates iron oxides which induce tensile stresses at the steel/concrete interface leading to the concrete cover cracking and loss of reinforcing bar cross-section. The evaluation of such pathology remains difficult and consequently limits the assessment of the structure serviceability, the knowledge on the degradation evolution, and the choice of a suitable repair method. The aim of this study is to correlate internal degradations (corrosion products formation and concrete cracking) induced by steel corrosion to external degradations (concrete cracking).The experimental program aims to determine these degradation mechanisms. The accelerated corrosion tests are carried out on reinforced concrete specimens in the presence of chloride ions by applying a constant current using three current densities (50,100 and 200 µA/cm²) during different exposure periods.Electrochemical properties of reinforced concrete specimens are determined before and after the accelerated corrosion tests. The quantitative evaluation of the corrosion products at the steel/concrete interface based on SEM observations (microscopic scale) demonstrates an important heterogeneity in the distribution and thicknesses (between 0 and 1584 µm). This heterogeneity can be explained by the evolution of anodic and cathodic zones due to different factors such as the non symmetric geometry of the specimens, the accelerated corrosion test environment (moisture, chloride ions and oxygen gradients), and the characteristics of concrete (aggregates, porosity).The internal (angular position, width, and length of cracks) and external crack patterns (maximum crack width) induced by the formation of corrosion products are analyzed. One to five internal cracks are identified in the internal crack patterns and they are classified in three groups. The first and second groups contain horizontal and vertical cracks which propagate in the direction of the shortest concrete cover. The third group is constituted of oblique cracks which are located in the opposite side of the horizontal cracks. The widths of the internal cracks range between 0.1 to 0.4 mm and their lengths between 1 to 3 cm. The maximum external crack widths are between 0.1 to 0.7 mm and are located on the shortest cover sides of the specimens.The maximum effort applied during the pull-out tests decreases with increasing levels of corrosion. However, the corrosion levels reach during the tests are too low to affect the steel/concrete interface behavior. The failure mode identified during the testing is concrete splitting failure regardless the corrosion level. A cause/effect scenario is proposed between steel corrosion and the mechanical induced degradation considering all experimental results.Based on experimental results, two models are proposed. The first one is developed to explain corrosion initiation and propagation. This model is able to determine the corrosion initiation time for each current density.The second model analyses the concrete cover mechanical behavior. The numerical results show that taking into account only the thickness of corrosion products (as an experimental input) does not generate a numerical cracking pattern similar to the experimental one. Then, complementary calculations considering a different distribution of the corrosion product’s thicknesses allow enhancing the agreement between experimental and numerical results

The interactions between engineering materials and their environment which give rise to stress corrosion cracking are reviewed and industrial examples from the petrochemical industry are described. In one of the examples, cracking took place in carbon steel exposed to pressurised gas containing carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water. The crack morphology in this system was studied by metallography of samples from industrial gas processing plants and the crack growth rates were determined using precracked specimens. Constant extension rate tests, U-bend specimens and potentiodynamic studies were used to evaluate alternative materials and inhibitor additions in CO-C02-H20 environments. Electrochemical noise was accessed as a technique to monitor sec on line. It was found that the CO-C02-H20 system was characterised by a time dependent adsorption of carbon monoxide at anodic and cathodic sites. The adsorption produced a critical balance between crack tip corrosion rate and the repassivation process comparable to the behaviour at the active-passive transition zone in more conventional systems. The anodic passivation exhibited a breakdown potential near to -400 mV (Ag/ AgCI) that defined the zone of sec susceptibility. Inhibition by CO and hence sec was virtually independent of CO partial pressure provided there was a sufficient reservoir of CO. The addition of commercial film forming inhibitors did not greatly influence the system and sec was still observed in CO-C02-H20 environments to which inhibitors had been added. Steels containing alloy additions of more than 9 % chromium were found to be resistant to sec but austenitic-ferritic weld joints cracked. A low alloy 3% nickel steel performed well in the constant extension rate tests but was not wholly resistant to sec. The morphology of stress corrosion cracks in CO-C02-H20 mixtures was influenced by carbon monoxide partial pressure. More corrosion was observed on the crack walls at low carbon monoxide partial pressure and widened cracks resembling •mesa• corrosion were common. This increased corrosion was probably due to difficulty in maintaining passivity in the crevice formed by the growing crack. Similarly, crevicing in precracked specimens appeared to inhibit sec and no crack extension was observed. Electrochemical noise proved to be a useful tool for monitoring. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 1994. / gm2013 / Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering / PhD

The fundamental cause of low temperature breakdown (reduction disintegration) is reduction of hematite to magnetite, resulting in a volume expansion and stress relief through the formation of cracks. Serious reduction disintegration causes poor gas permeability, high flue dust production and scaffolding, poor gas distribution, higher fuel consumption and lower productivity. Northern Cape iron ore generally performs well when tested for reduction disintegration properties both for blast furnaces and Corex; nevertheless, significant breakdown is experienced when used in the Corex process (at Saldanha Steel). This study was hence conducted to determine the effects of the following on reduction disintegration:<ul><li> different ore types (from Northern Cape) </li> <li> initial particle size</li><li> temperature range</li><li> reduction gas composition</li></ul> Although disintegration is clearly triggered by reduction, no direct correlation could be established between the percentage reduction and the percentage fines generated. The results indicated that the presence of gangue minerals alone does not cause fractures to form, but does influence the direction and intensity of fractures to some extent. In many cases cracks form randomly, with no specific preference for either gangue minerals or iron oxides. For most of the samples, an incubation period was observed before the first cracks formed. No crack propagation was observed after initial cracking. This study indicates that the degree of reduction disintegration depends mostly on furnace conditions. Reduction disintegration increased with higher hydrogen percentages (>5%), higher temperatures (in the 500ºC-700ºC range) and longer exposure. Disintegration of the samples decreased at temperatures higher than 750°C. For particles smaller than 16 mm an inverse relationship was found between the average particle size and the percentage of fines generated, in line with the observation that most of the disintegration is due to spalling from particle edges rather than particles breaking into smaller clumps. The results indicate that it is important to manage the temperature in the top of the blast furnace and the COREX shaft, and the time spent at temperatures below 750°C, to minimize the amount of fines generated. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering / unrestricted

[pt] A falha por fadiga nas estruturas e um problema muito comum que é caracterizado pela geração ou propagação paulatina de uma ou varias trincas e causada pela aplicação cíclica de cargas variáveis. A propagação das trincas bidimensionais tem sido estudada através de diferentes métodos numéricos que ajudam a descrever aproximadamente o valor do fator de intensidade de tensões ao longo da frente da trinca que é o parâmetro que controla a propagação. Porém, existem algumas expressões analíticas para trincas bidimensionais fornecidas na literatura que ajudam a descrever os fatores de intensidade de tensão e . Estas equações estão limitadas a diversos fatores de forma que relacionam as características geométricas da peça, espessura, largura e o tipo de entalhe já que as trincas bidimensionais mudam de aspecto a cada ciclo de carga. Contudo o processo de transição não tem sido acompanhado por estudos experimentais nem analíticos. Em especial, esta situação ocorre devido a que a transição acontece em poucos ciclos o que dificulta a sua medição. Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo geral estudar o processo de transição das trincas bidimensionais para unidimensionais com a utilização de um material transparente e com boas propriedades mecânicas como e o policarbonato. Experimentalmente, as trincas de fadiga bidimensionais se propagam em corpos de prova retangulares com defeito quarto - elíptico e são controladas sob condições de variável e baixa freqüência. Para calcular a vida total de uma trinca por fadiga, é preciso também modelar a transição. Foram tomados valores de comprimento experimentais a, c e c’ no processo de transição que nos permitem avaliar as taxas , e calculados os fatores de intensidade de tensão que controlam a transição. Os valores experimentais são também usados como dados de entrada num programa de análise numérica de propagação de trincas, o FRANC3D, o qual nos permite calcular os fatores de intensidade de tensão ao longo da frente da trinca quarto - elíptica. / [en] The fatigue failure of structures is a common problem that is characterized by the generation and propagation of one or several cracks caused by the cyclic application of variable loads. A crack is considered one-dimensional when the trajectory can be represented by a curve, as in the case where a surface crack pierces the entire thickness of a piece. If the crack penetrates partially in the specimen, it is considered to be two dimensional. Mathematical and physical models for simulating one-dimensional crack propagation by fatigue are widely known, and the main parameter that controls crack propagation is the stress intensity factor. However, the simulation of two-dimensional crack propagation has not yet reached the same state of development. There are some empirical expressions for two-dimensional cracks provided in the literature that help describe the stress intensity factors. These equations are limited to various form factors that relate the stress intensity to the geometrical characteristics of the piece. Also there are numerical methods that help describe some of the values of stress intensity factor along the crack front of a two-dimensional crack. An important question in calculating the total life of fatigue crack is describing the transition from a crack partially penetrating (two dimensional) for a one-dimensional (passing crack), because to calculate the total life of a fatigue crack is also necessary to model the transition. However, this process of transition has not for many geometries been described by analytical or experimental studies. One reason for this is that the transition often happens in a few cycles of load application, which complicates measurements. This research was aimed at investigating the process of transition from the two-dimensional crack to a one-dimensional crack with the use of polycarbonate a transparent material with good mechanical properties, polycarbonate. Experiments were conducted involving crack propagation in plates with a rectangular cross section. In each experiment, a crack was induced as a defect with a quarter-elliptical shape in one corner of the specimen. The propagation affected by the application of a low-frequency cyclic loading. Values of characteristic lengths of the two-dimensional shape of the crack (a, c and c ) were measured during the transition process, which allowed us to evaluate the rates of change of these parameters with the number of cycles N applied load and to evaluate the normalized stress intensity factors that control the transition. The experimental values are also used as input to a program for numerical analysis of crack propagation, the FRANC3D, which allows us to calculate the stress intensity factors along the front quarter-elliptical crack.

The presence of cracks in rotors is one of the most dangerous defects of rotating machinery. This can lead to catastrophic failure of the shaft and long out-of-service periods. The occurrence of a crack in a rotating shaft introduces changes in flexibilities which alters the dynamics during operation. This research deals with detecting damage in rotors by means of constantly monitoring the variation in the rotor’s dynamics during normal operating conditions. This project entails a computer finite element section as well as an experimental investigation. The flexibility in the region of the crack is different from an uncracked section. A finite element model of a shaft is built and investigated. The damaged model is the same except that the nodes in the location of the crack are not equivalenced in order to represent the crack. A simple constant cross-sectional shaft with semi-circular transverse surface cracks varying in size have been modelled on the Patran finite element software and a normal modes analysis was done using the Nastran solver. The results revealed a change in the natural frequencies due to the variation in the size of the crack. The experimental investigation involved creating sample shafts with damage positioned in them that would closely resemble what one may find in actual real-life situations and the dynamics during rotation with various torsional loadings are investigated and monitored using three methods. A fibre-optical sensor, Digital image correlation system and telemetry strain gauges were used. Undersampling techniques were used for the DIC system. Results showed that the fibre-optic sensor is by far the most favourable as it is able to detect damage under constant operation. The finite element model was updated by re-modelling the geometry, damage and material properties. The solution of the analysis matched the experimental results closely and model verification was achieved. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering / unrestricted

A titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V STOA) plate material was provided by the University of Dayton Research Institute from a previous U.S. Air Force high-cycle fatigue study. Fatigue-crack-growth tests on compact, C(T), specimens have been previously performed at Mississippi State University on the same material over a wide range in rates from threshold to near fracture for several load ratios (R = Pmin/Pmax). These tests used the compression pre-cracking method to generate fatigue-crack-growth-rate data in the near-threshold regime. Current load-reduction procedures were found to give elevated thresholds compared to compression pre-cracking methods. A crack-closure model was then used to determine crackront constraint and a plasticity-corrected effective stress-intensityactor-range relation over a wide range in rates and load ratios. Some engineering estimates were made for extremely slow rates (small-crack behavior), below the commonly defined threshold rate. Single-edge-notch-bend, SEN(B), fatigue specimens were machined from titanium alloy plates and were fatigue tested at two constant-amplitude load ratios (R = 0.1 and 0.5) and a modified Cold-Turbistan engine spectrum. Calculated fatigue lives from FASTRAN, a fatigue-life-prediction code, using small-crack theory with an equivalent-initiallaw-size (semi-circular surface flaw) of 9 µm in radius at the center of the semi-circular edge notch fit the constant-amplitude test data fairly well, but underpredicted the spectrum loading results by about a factor of 2 to 3. Life predictions made with linear-cumulative damage (LCD) calculations agreed fairly well with the spectrum tests.

This thesis presents an application of a numerical formulation incorporating the effects of joints, cracks, and fractures to a soil subsidence predictions problem, and the extension of that formulation to combined discrete slip planes and jointed media continua formulations. The results obtained are compared to each other and to a physical centrifuge simulation performed previously on the same problem.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第23485号 / 工博第4897号 / 新制||工||1765(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科社会基盤工学専攻 / (主査)教授 渦岡 良介, 教授 肥後 陽介, 准教授 PIPATPONGSA Thirapong / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

This thesis discusses the analysis of surface cracked configurations in order to develop a fracture prediction criterion suitable for ductile materials. A similar criteria has been successfully developed for brittle materials. However, the criteria has not been applied to ductile materials. Finite element analysis results are presented as well as laboratory test data. The validity of the proposed criterion is addressed and future work is proposed.

This thesis discusses plasticity-induced crack closure based finite element simulations of small fatigue cracks in three dimensions utilizing crystal plasticity theory. Previously, modeling has been performed in two dimensions using a double-slip crystal plasticity material model. The goal of this work is to extend that research using a full three-dimensional FCC crystal plasticity material model implementation that accounts for all twelve FCC slip systems. Discussions of Python scripts that were written to perform analyses with the commercial finite element code ABAQUS are given. A detailed description of the modeling methodology is presented along with results for single crystals and bicrystals. The results are compared with finite element and experimental results from the literature. A discussion of preliminary work for the analysis of crack growth around an intermetallic particle is also presented.