Zhang, Zhiyi. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves ). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

Hepatocellular carcmoma (HCC) is the third most common cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, with a gender prevalence observed in men. Recent studies have suggested that elevated activity of the androgen axis is one major host factor underlying this disparity between genders. The androgen receptor (AR) mediates function of androgen in vital developmental and oncogenic pathways by binding to genomic androgen response elements, which influence the transcription of downstream target genes. AR is overexpressed in 60-80% of human HCCs. Genetic studies further established the pivotal role ofAR in hepatocarcinogenesis, where liver-specific knockout of AR significantly reduced tumorigenicity in carcinogen- and HBV-induced HCC mouse models. However, AR-inducedhepatocarcinogenesis is far from fully understood, in part because little is known about the identity and role of direct AR-dependent targeted genes in hepatocytes. / In this study, we used genome-wide location and functional analyses to identify a critical mediator of AR signaling, cell cycle-related kinase (CCRK), in driving beta-cateninl T-cell factor (TCF)-dependent hepatocarcinogenesis. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by promoter array analysis of AR-overexpressing HCC cell lines, we found a number of cell cycle-related genes that are likely under the direct modulation of AR. Cell cycle-related kinase (CCRK), previously shown to promote glioblastoma tumorigenesis, was found to be the most significantly-bound AR target ( p<0.0001). CCRK was directly up-regulated by ligand-activated AR through promoter binding and required for AR-induced G1-S cell cycle progression because (1) CCRK overexpression attenuated cell cycle blockage by AR knockdown and (2) CCRK inhibition counteracted AR-mediated cell cycle progression. Ectopic CCRK expression induced immortalized liver cell proliferation, malignant transformation and tumor formation in immunodeficient mice, whereas CCRK inhibition decreased HCC cell growth in vitro and in vivo. These functional assays demonstrated that CCRK is a potential oncogene in HCC. Mechanistically, CCRK activated beta-catenin/TCF-dependent transcription through phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta and induced the expressions of beta-catenin target genes, cyclin D1 (CCND1) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Inhibition of beta-catenin/TCF signaling attenuated CCRK-induced cell cycle progression, colony formation and tumorigenicity. Conversely, HCC cell growth inhibition by CCRK knockdown was rescued by constitutively active beta-catenin or TCF. In agreement with these findings, activation of the AR/CCRK/beta-catenin axis was frequently observed in primary HCCs. More importantly, CCRK over-expression was correlated with tumor staging and poor overall survival in a cohort ofhuman HCC tissues. / Together, our data reveal a new cascade for AR function in hepatocarcinogenesis via the activation of beta-catenin/TCF signaling. This study also reveals that CCRK is a novel focal link between two prominent signaling pathways vital for HCC growth and thus represents a new therapeutic target for HCC treatment. / Feng, Hai. / Adviser: Sung Jao Yiu. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 73-04, Section: B, page: . / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 161-177). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. [Ann Arbor, MI] : ProQuest Information and Learning, [201-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

Amplification of chr.1 q21-22 is also an aberration frequently detected in HCC. Copy number gains of the GEF-H1 gene ranked the most frequent event from array-CGH. GEF-H1 up-regulation was significant correlated in patients with advanced HCC staging (P = 0.048), presence of micro-vascular invasion (P = 0.049) and shorter overall and disease free survival of patients (P < 0.03). Similar to BOP1, functional examinations of GEF-H1 suggested profound inhibitory effects on cell motility ( P < 0.035) and invasiveness (P < 0.003) in cell lines studied. Upon GEF-H1 depletion, re-expression of epithelial markers (E-cadherin, cytokeratin 18, alpha-catenin and gamma-catenin) and down-regulations of mesenchymal markers (N-cadherin, fibronectin and vimentin) were also readily observed. In addition, reduced active form of GTP-RhoA together with its downstream effectors including cleaved ROCK 1 and phosphorylated MLC2 were also found in GEF-H1 depleted cells. / Array-CGH also defined candidate proto-oncogenes within 2 causal amplified regions in HCC, chr.8q24 and chr.1q21-q22. In resolving affected genes at chr.8q24, distinctive gains of BOP1 was further established in primary HCC tumors, where frequent BOP1 up-regulations in tumors compared to adjacent non-tumoral liver (P < 0.0001) was identified. Increased BOP1 expression correlated with advanced HCC staging (P = 0.004), micro-vascular invasion (P = 0.006) and shorter overall and disease free survival of patients (P < 0.02). siRNA-mediated suppression of BOP1 in HCC cell lines showed significant inhibition on cell invasion (P < 0.003) and migration (P < 0.05), whereas overexpression of BOP1 in immortalized hepatocyte cell line, L02, showed increase cellular invasiveness and cell migratory rate (P < 0.0001). Evident regression of the Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) phenotype was readily identified in BOP1 knockdown cells, where re-expressions of epithelial markers (E-cadherin, cytokeratin 18 and gamma-catenin) and down-regulation of mesenchymal markers (fibronectin and vimentin) were found. It was found that BOP1 likely stimulates actin stress fibers assembly through RhoA activation. / Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a highly malignant tumor that is associated with a high incidence of cancer morbidity and mortality. Elucidation of genomic aberrations of HCC holds much importance in understanding the molecular basis that underlies the disease causation and progression. Extensive research on HCC has by now revealed a number of key genomic aberrations but, for most of these loci, the underlying cancer-related gene(s) remains unknown. / In this thesis, array-based comparative genomic hybridization (array-CGH) was deployed to define target genes within HCC-associated chromosomal regions. The first part of my study focused on mapping the homozygous deletions (HDs) in HCC. Though infrequent, HD screening has been widely utilized to define tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) in cancers. A panel of HCC cell lines was systematically examined for the presence of HDs. Array-CGH identified 6 HD regions, amongst which CRYL1 (located on chr.13q12.11) displayed most common down-regulations in primary HCC tumors. Significant associations could also be drawn between repressed CRYL1 and advanced tumor staging, increased tumor size and shorter disease-free patient survival (P ≤ 0.037). Moreover, HD on CRYL1 could be detected in 36% of HCC cases with CRYL1 down-regulations. Examination of other inactivating mechanisms suggested histone deacetylation and promoter hypermethylation to be likely inactivating events as well. Re-expression of CRYL1 in SK-HEP1 cell line induced profound inhibition on cellular proliferation and cell growth (P ≤ 0.002). By Annexin V staining, CRYL1 restoration readily increased pro-apoptotic cells with an induction of P ARP cleavage. Flow cytometry further revealed CRYL1 could prolong the G2-M phase, possibly through interrupting the Cdc2/cyclin B path. / The similarities in functional behaviours of BOP1 and GEF-H1 might have implications in the fundamental biology of HCC tumorigenesis. It is known that HCC is a highly aggressive tumor often associated with intra- and extra-hepatic metastasis. The finding of 2 causal changes to be closely associated with cell migration and invasiveness may have implications in the metastatic potentials of HCC cells being predisposed earlier on from genomic events. / Cheng, Kit Chong Ibis. / Adviser: Nathalie Wong. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 73-06, Section: B, page: . / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 177-190). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. [Ann Arbor, MI] : ProQuest Information and Learning, [201-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

Ng, Chor Fung. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 156-169). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

Chan, Ho Ching. / Thesis M.Phil. Chinese University of Hong Kong 2016. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 159-166). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on 15, September, 2016).

Wong Wei-yan. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 221-242). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Thesis committee --- p.i / Declaration --- p.ii / Acknowledgements --- p.iii / Abstract in Chinese --- p.iv / Abstract in English --- p.vi / List of abbreviations --- p.viii / List of figures --- p.xi / List of tables --- p.xv / Content: --- p.xvi / General introduction --- p.1 / Aldehyde dehydrogenase superfamily --- p.3 / Background of antiquitin --- p.5 / Plant antiqutins (ALDH7B) --- p.5 / Animal antiquitins (ALDH7A) --- p.8 / Human antiquitin information on NCBI --- p.14 / Rationale of studying the inducibility of annquitin and overexpression of it in HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.16 / Flowchart 1 Procedure of antiquitin expression studies in the HEK293 and HepG2 cells under stress --- p.19 / Flowchart 2 Procedure to study antiquitin expression in the HEK293 and HepG2 cells after in silico promoter search --- p.20 / Flowchart 3 Procedure to study antiquitin overexpressed HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.21 / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Inducibility of antiquitin in the HEK293 and HepG2 cells under hyperosmotic stress / Chapter 1.1 --- Introduction --- p.22 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Cellular response to hyperosmotic stress --- p.22 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Methods to study the responses of cells under hyperosmotic stress --- p.24 / Chapter 1.2 --- Materials --- p.26 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Cell culture media --- p.26 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Buffers for RNA use --- p.26 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Buffers for DNA use --- p.27 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Other chemicals --- p.27 / Chapter 1.3 --- Methods --- p.28 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Culture of HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.28 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Hyperosmotic stress on HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.29 / Chapter 1.3.3 --- MTT assay --- p.29 / Chapter 1.3.4 --- Total RNA extraction --- p.30 / Chapter 1.3.5 --- Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) --- p.30 / Chapter 1.3.6 --- Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) --- p.31 / Chapter 1.3.7 --- Quantification of PCR products --- p.31 / Chapter 1.3.8 --- Statistical analysis --- p.33 / Chapter 1.4 --- Results --- p.34 / Chapter 1.4.1 --- Viability of HEK293 and HepG2 cells under hyperosmotic stress --- p.34 / Chapter 1.4.2 --- Validation of RNA quality --- p.34 / Chapter 1.4.3 --- Validation and determination of PCR conditions --- p.40 / Chapter 1.4.4 --- Inducibility of antiquitin in HEK293 cells under hyperosmotic stress / Chapter 1.4.5 --- Inducibility of antiquitin in HepG2 cells under hyperosmotic stress --- p.43 / Chapter 1.4.6 --- Inducibility of aldose reductase under hyperosmotic stress --- p.43 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- "In silico studies of human antiquitin promoter, genomics sequences and open reading frame" --- p.54 / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.54 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Eukaryotic promoters --- p.55 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Key events in transcriptional initiation --- p.55 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Alternative splicing of mRNA --- p.57 / Chapter 2.1.4 --- Bipartite nuclear localization signal (NLS) --- p.57 / Chapter 2.2 --- Methods --- p.60 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Putative promoter studies of human antiquitin --- p.60 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Putative promoter studies of Arabidopsis thaliana antiquitin --- p.60 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Analysis for the alternative splicing of human antiquitin mRNA --- p.60 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Analysis for the nuclear localization signal (NLS) of human antiquitin amino acid sequence --- p.61 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- Nucleotide / amino acid sequence analyses --- p.61 / Chapter 2.3 --- Results --- p.62 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Computer search for the putative cis-acting elements on human antiquitin promoter --- p.62 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Comparison of cis-acting elements found on human antiquitin promoter with those on Arabidopsis thaliana antiquitin promoter --- p.62 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Possibilities of alternative splicing isoforms of human antiquitin / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Possibilities of bipartite nuclear localization signals on human antiquitin protein --- p.83 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Overexpression of antiquitin in HEK293 and HepG2 cells and their characterization / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.86 / Chapter 3.1.1 --- Cell cycle of a human somatic cell --- p.88 / Chapter 3.1.2 --- Detection of changes in the transcriptome --- p.90 / Chapter 3.1.3 --- Human genome U133 Plus 2.0 array --- p.95 / Chapter 3.1.4 --- Detection of changes in the proteome --- p.96 / Chapter 3.1.5 --- MALDI-TOF MS --- p.97 / Chapter 3.2 --- Materials --- p.99 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Solutions for cell culture use --- p.99 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Solutions for cloning --- p.99 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Buffers for cell cycle analysis --- p.99 / Chapter 3.2.4 --- Buffers for two-dimensional (2D) electrophoresis --- p.100 / Chapter 3.2.5 --- Solutions for silver staining --- p.101 / Chapter 3.2.6 --- Solutions for Coomassie blue protein staining --- p.102 / Chapter 3.2.7 --- Solutions for Western blotting --- p.102 / Chapter 3.2.8 --- Solutions for mass spectrometry --- p.103 / Chapter 3.3 --- Methods --- p.104 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Hypoosmotic stress --- p.104 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Heat shock --- p.104 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Oxidative stress treatment / Chapter 3.3.4 --- Chemical hypoxia --- p.104 / Chapter 3.3.5 --- Treatment of forskolin --- p.106 / Chapter 3.3.6 --- Culture of SHSY5Y cells and its differentiation --- p.106 / Chapter 3.3.7 --- Cloning of pBUDCE4.1/ATQ --- p.106 / Chapter 3.3.8 --- PCR product purification --- p.107 / Chapter 3.3.9 --- Preparation of pEGFP.N1 vector for co-transfection --- p.109 / Chapter 3.3.10 --- Transfection of HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.109 / Chapter 3.3.11 --- Assays to characterize transient transfected HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.110 / Chapter 3.3.11.1 --- Transfection efficiency monitoring --- p.110 / Chapter 3.3.11.2 --- Cell cycle analysis --- p.112 / Chapter 3.3.11.3 --- Cell doubling time measurement --- p.112 / Chapter 3.3.11.4 --- Stress responsiveness --- p.113 / Chapter 3.3.11.5 --- Oligonucleotide array analysis --- p.113 / Chapter 3.3.11.5.1 --- Total RNA extraction --- p.113 / Chapter 3.3.11.5.2 --- Oligonucleotide array preparations --- p.113 / Chapter 3.3.11.5.3 --- Data analysis --- p.114 / Chapter 3.3.11.6 --- Two-dimensional (2D) electrophoresis --- p.115 / Chapter 3.3.11.6.1 --- Total protein extraction --- p.115 / Chapter 3.3.11.6.2 --- Protein quantification --- p.115 / Chapter 3.3.11.6.3 --- First dimension electrophoresis: isoelectric focusing (IEF) --- p.115 / Chapter 3.3.11.6.4 --- Second dimension electrophoresis: SDS- --- p.116 / Chapter 3.3.11.6.5 --- Silver staining --- p.116 / Chapter 3.3.11.6.6 --- Spots detection --- p.117 / Chapter 3.3.11.7 --- Preparations of samples for MALDI-TOF MS --- p.117 / Chapter 3.3.11.7.1 --- Silver de-staining --- p.117 / Chapter 3.3.11.7.2 --- In-gel tryptic digestion --- p.118 / Chapter 3.3.11.7.3 --- Peptide extraction --- p.118 / Chapter 3.3.11.7.4 --- ZipTip® samples desalting and concentrating --- p.119 / Chapter 3.3.11.7.5 --- MALDI-TOF MS --- p.119 / Chapter 3.3.11.8 --- Western blotting --- p.119 / Chapter 3.3.11.8.1 --- Antibodies probing --- p.120 / Chapter 3.3.11.8.2 --- Enhanced chemiluminescence's (ECL) assay --- p.121 / Chapter 3.4 --- Results --- p.122 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Inducibility of antiquitin in HEK293 cells under xenobiotic stimulus --- p.122 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Inducibility of antiquitin in HEK293 and HepG2 cells under chemical hypoxia --- p.122 / Chapter 3.4.3 --- Inducibility of antiquitin in HEK293 and HepG2 cells under hypoosmotic stress --- p.122 / Chapter 3.4.4 --- Inducibility of antiquitin in HEK293 and HepG2 cells under heat shock --- p.122 / Chapter 3.4.5 --- Inducibility of antiquitin in HEK293 and HepG2 cells under forskolin challenge --- p.128 / Chapter 3.4.6 --- Expression of antiquitin in differentiating SHSY5Y cells by retinoic acid and N2 supplement --- p.128 / Chapter 3.4.7 --- Overexpression of antiquitin in HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.128 / Chapter 3.4.8 --- Viability of transfected HEK293 and HepG2 cells under hyperosmotic stress --- p.136 / Chapter 3.4.9 --- Cell doubling times of transfected HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.143 / Chapter 3.4.10 --- Cell cycle analysis of transfected HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.143 / Chapter 3.4.11 --- "Western blot analysis of cyclin D, cyclin A and cyclin B of transfected HEK293 and HepG2 cells" --- p.148 / Chapter 3.4.12 --- RNA quality control tests for oligonucleotide array analysis --- p.148 / Chapter 3.4.13 --- Oligonucleotide array analysis on transfected HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.155 / Chapter 3.4.14 --- Two-dimensional electrophoresis of transfected HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.169 / Chapter 3.4.15 --- MALDI-TOF MS of transfected HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.169 / Chapter 3.4.16 --- Genes and proteins upregulnted in the antiquitin transfected HEK293 and HepG2 cells --- p.190 / Discussion --- p.197 / Reference --- p.221 / Appendix Materials used in the project --- p.243

Chin Wai. / Original paper published on European Jouranl of cancer (vol. 34, no. 7, p. 1015-1022) inserted. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1999. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 70-77). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Dedication --- p.i / Vita --- p.ii / Acknowledgment --- p.iv / Abstract --- p.vii / Introduction --- p.1 / Hepatocellular carcinoma --- p.1 / Lung cancer --- p.3 / The role of suppressor gene PML in cancer --- p.5 / Principle of immunohistaining methods --- p.8 / Patients and methods --- p.21 / Patients and smaples --- p.21 / Slide preparing --- p.22 / Immunohistochemical staining --- p.23 / Cell culture --- p.30 / Determination of the population doubling times --- p.30 / Mtt assay --- p.35 / Results --- p.37 / "Altered expression of PML in normal liver, HCC and Secondary liver tumor" --- p.37 / Increased expression of PML in chronic hepatitis tissues --- p.38 / Differential expression of PML at the periphery and at the center of single-encapsulated lesion of HCC --- p.42 / Expression of PML in normal lung tissues --- p.43 / Suppression of PML expression in small cell lung cancer --- p.44 / Enhanced expression of PML in adenocarcinoma of the lung --- p.44 / Enhanced expression of PML in squamous cell carcinoma of the lung --- p.45 / Express of PML in metastatic lung cancer --- p.46 / Inverse correlation of the expression of PML and the proliferation marker Ki-67 in SCLC and SCC --- p.46 / Correlation of the expression of PML in macrophages with the macrophage-specific marker KP-1 --- p.47 / Expression of PML in Hela cells and Hela cells transfected with the gene --- p.48 / Altered morphology of the Hela-PML cell-clones --- p.49 / Altered growth rate in Hela-PML cells --- p.49 / Altered rate of cell-death in Hela-PML cells --- p.50 / Discussion --- p.51 / Further studies --- p.63 / References --- p.70 / Table --- p.78 / Figure legend --- p.81 / Appendix: Original paper published on European Journal of cancer --- p.106

Yu Chi Hung. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2000. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 124-139). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgement --- p.i / Table of Contents --- p.ii / Abbreviations --- p.iv / Abstract --- p.v / 論文摘要 --- p.vi / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- General introduction / Chapter 1.2 --- HBV and its potential oncogenic properties / Chapter 1.3 --- Aim of the present study / Chapter 1.4 --- Expressed sequence tag (EST) analysis: an approach to reveal gene expression pattern in a specific tissue / Chapter 1.5 --- cDNA subtraction / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.17 / Chapter 2.1 --- Plating out the adult human normal liver cDNA library / Chapter 2.2 --- PCR amplification of cloned human normal liver cDNA inserts / Chapter 2.3 --- Cycle sequencing of cloned human normal liver cDNA inserts / Chapter 2.4 --- mRNA preparation from the HCC tissue and its surrounding normal counterpart / Chapter 2.5 --- PCR-Select cDNA subtraction / Chapter 2.6 --- Construction of HCC subtracted cDNA library by T/A cloning method / Chapter 2.7 --- PCR amplification of cloned subtracted cDNA / Chapter 2.8 --- Cycle sequencing of cloned subtracted cDNA / Chapter 2.9 --- Sequence analysis / Chapter 2.10 --- Differential hybridization of HCC subtracted clones / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Results --- p.46 / Chapter 3.1 --- The sequencing results of adult human normal liver cDNA clones / Chapter 3.2 --- Categorization of ESTs sequenced from the adult normal liver / Chapter 3.3 --- Adaptor ligation efficiency analysis / Chapter 3.4 --- Primary and secondary PCR Amplification / Chapter 3.5 --- PCR analysis of subtraction efficiency / Chapter 3.6 --- The sequencing results of subtracted HCC cDNA clones / Chapter 3.7 --- Categorization of ESTs sequenced from the subtracted HCC cDNA library / Chapter 3.8 --- Differential hybridization of subtracted cDNA clones / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Discussions --- p.90 / Chapter 4.1 --- Characterization of the ESTs generated from human normal liver cDNA library / Chapter 4.2 --- EST analysis on subtracted HCC cDNA clones / Chapter 4.3 --- Candidate genes differentially expressed in HCC / Appendix A The coordinates of dot blots (in numerical order according to clone numbers) / Appendix B The coordinates of dot blots (in alphabetical order according to putative identity) / References --- p.124

by Cheung Yuk Yin. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves xx-xxviii). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgements --- p.i / Abstract --- p.ii / 摘要 --- p.iii / Table of Content --- p.iv / Abbreviations / for Amino Acids --- p.viii / for Standard Genetic Code --- p.ix / for Units --- p.x / for Prefixes --- p.xi / for Terms commonly used in the report --- p.xii / List of Figures --- p.xiii / List of Tables --- p.xiv / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction / Chapter 1.1 --- Epidemiology of Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Relationship between Hepatitis B Virus and Hepatocellular Carcinoma --- p.2 / Chapter 1.3 --- Brief Description of HBV Genome --- p.2 / Chapter 1.4 --- Possible Roles of HBx in Hepatocellular Carcinoma --- p.4 / Chapter 1.5 --- Novel Interacting Partner of HBx - HBx-lnteracting Protein (XIP) --- p.6 / Chapter 1.6 --- Objective --- p.6 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Methodology / Chapter 2.1 --- Information of the HBx and XIP Clones --- p.7 / Chapter 2.2 --- "Information of the Expression Vectors (pRSETA, 6xHis-pRSETA and pET8C)" --- p.7 / Chapter 2.3 --- Sub-Cloning of HBx and XIP into Different Vectors --- p.9 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Design of Primers for Cloning of HBx and XIP into Different Vectors --- p.9 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Protocol --- p.12 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Enzyme Digestion Reaction Protocol --- p.14 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Ligation Protocol --- p.16 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Preparation of Competent Cells --- p.17 / Chapter 2.3.6 --- Transformation --- p.18 / Chapter 2.3.7 --- Gel Extraction Protocol --- p.19 / Chapter 2.3.7.1 --- Life Technologies CONCERT´ёØ Rapid Gel Extraction System --- p.19 / Chapter 2.3.7.2 --- QIAGEN Gel Extraction Kit --- p.20 / Chapter 2.3.8 --- Plasmid Preparation Protocol --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.8.1 --- Life Technologies CONCERT´ёØ Rapid Plasmid Minipreps --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.8.2 --- QIAGEN Plasmid Maxi Kit --- p.23 / Chapter 2.4 --- Expression of HBx and XIP in E. coli Strain C41 (DE3) --- p.25 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Transformation --- p.25 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Expression of HBx and 6xHis-HBx in E. coli Strain C41 (DE3) --- p.26 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Expression of XIP in E. coli Strain C41 (DE3) --- p.27 / Chapter 2.5 --- Preparation of Buffers for Chromatography and Circular Dichroism Spectrum Measurement --- p.28 / Chapter 2.6 --- Purification and Refolding of HBx and His-Tagged HBx --- p.28 / Chapter 2.6.1 --- Washing of HBx and His-Tagged HBx Inclusion Bodies --- p.28 / Chapter 2.6.2 --- His-Tagged HBx Purification by Affinity Chromatography --- p.29 / Chapter 2.6.3 --- HBx Purification by Size Exclusion Chromatography --- p.30 / Chapter 2.6.4 --- Refolding of HBx and His-Tagged HBx by Oxidative Dialysis --- p.30 / Chapter 2.7 --- Purification of XIP --- p.33 / Chapter 2.7.1 --- Screening of Chromatographic Conditions for the Purification of XIP --- p.33 / Chapter 2.7.2 --- XIP 1st Step of Purification by Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography --- p.34 / Chapter 2.7.3 --- XIP 2nd step of Purification by Size Exclusion Chromatography --- p.34 / Chapter 2.8 --- Chemical Denaturation Experiment of HBx and XIP --- p.36 / Chapter 2.8.1 --- Preparation of Urea Buffers for the Chemical Denaturation of HBx --- p.37 / Chapter 2.8.2 --- Preparation of Different GdnHCI Buffer for the Chemical Denaturation of XIP --- p.38 / Chapter 2.8.3 --- Calculation for Chemical Denaturation Experiment --- p.39 / Chapter 2.8.3.1 --- Protein Concentration Calculation --- p.39 / Chapter 2.8.3.2 --- Residual Molar Elipticity Calculation --- p.39 / Chapter 2.8.3.3 --- Free Energy Change (ΔGu) Calculation --- p.40 / Chapter 2.9 --- Two-dimensional Heteronuclear Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Experiment --- p.41 / Chapter 2.10 --- Interaction Confirmation between HBx and XIP --- p.42 / Chapter 2.10.1 --- "Transfection of pEGFP, pEGFP-HBx and pEGFP-XIP into HepG2" --- p.42 / Chapter 2.10.2 --- Yeast Two Hybrid System for Confirmation of HBx and XIP Interaction --- p.44 / Chapter 2.10.2.1 --- Preparation of Y187 Competent Cells --- p.44 / Chapter 2.10.2.2 --- Transformation of pGBKT7-HBx and pACT2-XIP into Y187 --- p.45 / Chapter 2.10.2.3 --- β-galactosidase Colony Lift Assay --- p.46 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- "Expression, Purification and Characterization of Hepatitis B Virus X Protein (HBx)" / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.47 / Chapter 3.2 --- Construction of Recombinant HBx-pRSETA and 6xHis-HBx-pRSETA Plasmids --- p.48 / Chapter 3.3 --- Expression of 6xHis-HBx in E. coli C41 (DE3) using M9ZB Medium --- p.52 / Chapter 3.4 --- Expression of HBx in E. coli C41 (DE3) using M9ZB Medium --- p.54 / Chapter 3.5 --- Purification and Refolding of 6xHis-HBx Fusion Proteins --- p.56 / Chapter 3.6 --- Purification and Refolding of HBx Proteins --- p.60 / Chapter 3.7 --- Structural Characterization of Refolded HBx --- p.65 / Chapter 3.7.1 --- Introduction --- p.55 / Chapter 3.7.2 --- Experimental Analysis of HBx Secondary Structure --- p.66 / Chapter 3.7.3 --- Chemical Unfolding Experiment of HBx --- p.68 / Chapter 3.8 --- Discussion --- p.70 / Chapter 3.8.1 --- "HBx was Expressed, Purified and Characterized instead of 6xHis-HBx" --- p.71 / Chapter 3.8.2 --- High Concentration of DTT was used to Minimize Formation of HBx Aggregates --- p.72 / Chapter 3.8.3 --- Oxidative Refolding to Ensure Proper Disulfide Bond Formation --- p.73 / Chapter 3.8.4 --- Computational Prediction and Experimental Prediction of Secondary Structure of HBx --- p.75 / Chapter 3.9 --- Concluding Remarks --- p.77 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- "Expression, Purification and Characterization of HBx-lnteracting Protein (XIP)" / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.78 / Chapter 4.2 --- Construction of Recombinant XIP-pET8C --- p.78 / Chapter 4.3 --- Expression of XIP in E. coli C41 (DE3) using M9ZB and M9 Mediums --- p.82 / Chapter 4.4 --- Screening of Chromatographic Conditions for the Purification of XIP --- p.83 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- Introduction --- p.83 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Purification Details --- p.83 / Chapter 4.5 --- Purification of XIP by HiTrap Phenyl HP 5-ml Column --- p.87 / Chapter 4.6 --- Purification of XIP by HiLoad 26/60 Superdex 75 Prep Grade --- p.89 / Chapter 4.7 --- Structural Characterization of XIP --- p.92 / Chapter 4.7.1 --- CD Spectrum --- p.92 / Chapter 4.7.2 --- Chemical Denaturation Experiment of XIP --- p.93 / Chapter 4.7.3 --- Two-Dimensional Heteronuclear Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectrum of 15N Labeled XIP --- p.95 / Chapter 4.8 --- Discussion --- p.97 / Chapter 4.8.1 --- Purification Method Development --- p.97 / Chapter 4.8.2 --- "Do Different Protein Cosolutes, Protein Stabilizers and Detergents Help XIP to Adopt a Stable Conformation?" --- p.99 / Chapter 4.9 --- Concluding Remarks --- p.101 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- In vivo Studies of HBx and XIP Interactions / Chapter 5.1 --- Investigation of Sub-Cellular Localization of HBx and XIP in Liver Cells --- p.102 / Chapter 5.1.1 --- Introduction --- p.102 / Chapter 5.1.2 --- "Construction of Recombinant HBx-pECFP-C1, HBx-pEGFP-C1, HBx-pEYFP-C1 and XIP-pECFP-C1, XIP-pEGFP-C1, XIP-pEYFP-C1" --- p.103 / Chapter 5.1.3 --- Transfection of pEGFP-C1 HBx and pEGFP-C1 XIP into HepG2 to Find Out HBx and XIP Sub-Cellular Localization --- p.106 / Chapter 5.1.3.1 --- Introduction --- p.107 / Chapter 5.1.3.2 --- Investigation of EGFP Proteins Expression using the Confocal Microscope and the Leica TCS Software --- p.108 / Chapter 5.1.4 --- Discussion and Future Prospects --- p.111 / Chapter 5.2 --- Interaction of HBx and XIP Studied by Yeast Two-Hybrid System --- p.113 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- Introduction --- p.113 / Chapter 5.2.2 --- Construction of Recombinant HBx-pGBKT7 and XIP-pACT2 Plasmids --- p.114 / Chapter 5.2.3 --- Confirmation of HBx and XIP Interaction by Yeast Two-Hybrid System --- p.117 / Chapter 5.2.4 --- Discussion --- p.121 / Chapter Chapter 6 --- Conclusion --- p.123 / Appendix I Sequence of HBx and XIP --- p.I / Chapter II --- Vector Sequences --- p.II / Chapter III --- Vector Maps --- p.VI / Chapter IV --- Electrophoresis Markers --- p.XI / Chapter V --- Agarose Gel Electrophoresis --- p.XII / Chapter VI --- SDS-PAGE Eectrophoresis --- p.XIII / Chapter VII --- Medium for Bacterial Culture --- p.XV / Chapter VIII --- Medium for Cell Culture --- p.XVII / Chapter IX --- Medium for Yeast Culture --- p.XVIII / Chapter X --- Buffers for Yeast Transformation --- p.XIX / Reference --- p.XX

by Cheung Yuen-Nei. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 194-208). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgement --- p.i / Abstract --- p.ii / 摘要 --- p.iv / Contents --- p.vi / List of Figures --- p.xii / List of Tables --- p.xv / Abbreviations --- p.xvi / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.2 / Chapter 1.1 --- Characteristic of Saponins --- p.3 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Occurrence of Saponins --- p.3 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- General Properties of Saponins --- p.3 / Chapter 1.1.2.1 --- Emulsifying Agents --- p.3 / Chapter 1.2.2.2 --- Forming Complex with Cholesterol --- p.4 / Chapter 1.1.2.3 --- Hemolytic Property --- p.4 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- Structure of Saponins --- p.5 / Chapter 1.1.3.1 --- Categories of Saponins --- p.5 / Chapter 1.1.3.1.1 --- Triterpene Saponins --- p.5 / Chapter 1.1.3.1.2 --- Steroid Saponins --- p.5 / Chapter 1.1.3.2 --- Monodesmosidic and Bidesmosidic Saponins --- p.7 / Chapter 1.1.4 --- Biological and Pharmacological Properties of Saponins --- p.9 / Chapter 1.1.4.1 --- Anti-microbial Activity --- p.9 / Chapter 1.1.4.1.1 --- Anti-fungal Activities --- p.9 / Chapter 1.1.4.1.2 --- Anti-bacterial Activities --- p.10 / Chapter 1.1.4.1.3 --- Anti-viral Activities --- p.10 / Chapter 1.1.4.2 --- Insecticidal Activity --- p.10 / Chapter 1.1.4.3 --- Molluscicidal Activity --- p.10 / Chapter 1.1.4.4 --- Hypocholesterolemic Activity --- p.11 / Chapter 1.1.4.5 --- Anti-ulcer Activity --- p.11 / Chapter 1.1.4.6 --- Contraceptive Activity --- p.12 / Chapter 1.1.4.7 --- Immunomodulatory Activities --- p.12 / Chapter 1.1.4.7.1 --- Direct Immunostimulation --- p.12 / Chapter 1.1.4.7.2 --- Acting as Immuno-adjuvants --- p.13 / Chapter 1.1.4.8 --- Anti-tumor Activity --- p.14 / Chapter 1.1.4.8.1 --- Anti-carcinogenesis --- p.15 / Chapter 1.1.4.8.2 --- Suppression of Tumor Growth --- p.16 / Chapter 1.1.5 --- Anti-tumor Activity of Steroid Saponins --- p.18 / Chapter 1.1.5.1 --- Diosgenin Steroid Saponin --- p.18 / Chapter 1.1.5.2 --- Hong Kong Compounds --- p.18 / Chapter 1.1.5.3 --- Hong Kong18 --- p.21 / Chapter 1.2 --- Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) --- p.24 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- The Incidence of Liver Cancer --- p.24 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Classification of Liver Cancer --- p.24 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Lines --- p.25 / Chapter 1.2.3.1 --- Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line HepG2 --- p.25 / Chapter 1.2.3.2 --- Multidrug Resistant Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line R-HepG2 --- p.27 / Chapter 1.2.3.2.1 --- Mechanisms of Multidrug Resistance --- p.28 / Chapter 1.2.3.2.2 --- Structure and Characteristics of P-glycoprotein --- p.29 / Chapter 1.2.3.2.3 --- Methods in Dealing with P-glycoprotein Over-expressed MDR Cells --- p.31 / Chapter 1.3 --- Objectives of the Project --- p.32 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Study of the Anti-tumor Activities of Hong Kong 18 on Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line HepG2 and Unravel the Underlying Mechanisms --- p.32 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Study of the Anti-tumor Activities of Hong Kong 18on Multidrug Resistant Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line R-HepG2 and Unravel the Underlying Mechanisms --- p.32 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.33 / Chapter 2.1 --- Materials --- p.34 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Cell Culture --- p.34 / Chapter 2.1.1.1 --- Cell Lines --- p.34 / Chapter 2.1.1.2 --- Culture Media --- p.35 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Reagents and Buffers --- p.36 / Chapter 2.1.2.1 --- Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) --- p.36 / Chapter 2.1.2.2 --- Reagents and Buffers for DNA Fragmentation --- p.36 / Chapter 2.1.2.3 --- Reagents and Buffers for Western Analysis --- p.37 / Chapter 2.1.2.4 --- Reagents and Buffer for Caspases Activities --- p.39 / Chapter 2.1.2.5 --- Fluorescent Dyes used for Flow Cytometry --- p.39 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Chemicals --- p.39 / Chapter 2.2 --- Methods --- p.46 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- MTT Assay --- p.46 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Determination of Cell Viability --- p.46 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Purification of Macrophages from balb/c Mice --- p.47 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Hemolysis Assay --- p.47 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- In vivo Studies of the Toxicity of HK18 --- p.48 / Chapter 2.2.6 --- DNA Fragmentation Assay --- p.50 / Chapter 2.2.7 --- Detection of Apoptotic and Necrotic / Late Apoptotic Cells Death by Flow Cytometry with Annexin V-FITC / PI --- p.51 / Chapter 2.2.8 --- Detection of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential by JC-1 Fluorescent Dye --- p.52 / Chapter 2.2.9 --- Detection of Intracellular Ca Level by Flow Cytometry with Fluo-3 Fluorescent Dye --- p.52 / Chapter 2.2.10 --- Detection of Intracellular Hydrogen Peroxide Level by Flow Cytometry with DCF Fluorescence Dye --- p.53 / Chapter 2.2.11 --- Simultaneous Detection of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential and Intracellular Ca2+ or Mitochondrial Membrane Potential and Intracellular Hydrogen Peroxide --- p.54 / Chapter 2.2.12 --- Western Analysis --- p.55 / Chapter 2.2.12.1 --- Total Protein Extraction --- p.55 / Chapter 2.2.12.2 --- Extraction of Cytosolic Proteins --- p.59 / Chapter 2.2.13 --- Determination of Caspases Enzymatic Activity --- p.63 / Chapter 2.2.14 --- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) --- p.67 / Chapter 2.2.14.1 --- RNA Extraction by TRIzol Reagent --- p.67 / Chapter 2.2.14.2 --- Reverse Transcription --- p.68 / Chapter 2.2.14.3 --- Polymerase Chain Reaction --- p.68 / Chapter 2.3 --- Statistic Analysis --- p.71 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Cytotoxicity of HK18 --- p.72 / Chapter 3.1 --- Cytotoxicity of HK18 on HepG2 Cells --- p.73 / Chapter 3.1.1 --- Study of the Cytotoxic Activity of HK18 on HepG2 Cells by MTT Assay --- p.73 / Chapter 3.1.2 --- Study of the Cytotoxic Activity of HK18 on HepG2 Cells by Tryphan Blue Exclusion Assay --- p.76 / Chapter 3.2 --- Cytotoxicity of HK18 on R-HepG2 Cells --- p.78 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Study of the Cytotoxic Activity of HK18 on R-HepG2 Cells by MTT Assay --- p.78 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Study of the Cytotoxic Activity of HK18 on R-HepG2 Cells by Tryphan Blue Exclusion Assay --- p.81 / Chapter 3.3 --- Cytotoxicity of HK18 on Macrophages --- p.83 / Chapter 3.4 --- Hemolytic Activity of HK18 --- p.85 / Chapter 3.5 --- In vivo Study of the Toxicity of HK18 --- p.87 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Mechanistic Study of HK18 on HepG2 Cells --- p.90 / Chapter 4.1 --- Hallmarks of Apoptosis Induced by HK18 on HepG2 Cells --- p.91 / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Induction of Phosphatidylserine Externalization by HK18 on HepG2 Cells --- p.91 / Chapter 4.1.2 --- Induction of DNA Fragmentation by HK18 of HepG2 Cells --- p.97 / Chapter 4.2 --- Study of the Underlying Mechanisms of HK18 Induced Apoptosis in HepG2 Cells --- p.99 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- The Role of Mitochondria in HK18 Induced Apoptosis of HepG2 Cells --- p.99 / Chapter 4.2.1.1 --- HK18 Induced Mitochondrial Membrane Depolarization in HepG2 Cells --- p.101 / Chapter 4.2.1.2 --- Addition of Bongkrekic Acid Reduced HK18 Cytotoxicity on HepG2 Cells --- p.105 / Chapter 4.2.1.3 --- Elevation of Intracellular Hydrogen Peroxide Level in HK18 Treated HepG2 Cells --- p.108 / Chapter 4.2.1.4 --- Elevation of Intracellular Ca2+ Level in HK18 Treated HepG2 Cells --- p.114 / Chapter 4.2.1.5 --- HK18 Induced Cytochrome c and AIF Released from Mitochondria of HepG2 Cells --- p.120 / Chapter 4.3 --- Downstream Biochemical Changes Induced by HK18 on HepG2 Cells --- p.123 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Activation of Caspase 3 of HepG2 Cells by HK18 as Demonstrated by Western Blot --- p.123 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Induction of Caspases Activities of HepG2 Cells by HK18 as Demonstrated by Enzymatic Activity Assays --- p.125 / Chapter 4.4 --- Down-regulation of Anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 Family Members of HepG2 Cells by HK18 --- p.129 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- Mechanistic Study of HK18 on R-HepG2 Cells --- p.133 / Chapter 5.1 --- Hallmarks of Apoptosis Induced by HK18 on R-HepG2 Cells --- p.134 / Chapter 5.1.1 --- Induction of Phosphatidylserine Externalization by HK18 on R-HepG2 Cells --- p.134 / Chapter 5.1.2 --- Induction of DNA Fragmentation by HK18 of R-HepG2 Cells --- p.137 / Chapter 5.2 --- Study of the Underlying Mechanisms of HK18 Induced Apoptosis in R-HepG2 Cells --- p.139 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- The Role of Mitochondria in HK18 Induced Apoptosis of R-HepG2 Cells --- p.139 / Chapter 5.2.1.1 --- HK18 Induced Mitochondrial Membrane Depolarization in R-HepG2 Cells --- p.139 / Chapter 5.2.1.2 --- Addition of Bongkrekic Acid Reduced HK18 Cytotoxicity on R-HepG2 Cells --- p.142 / Chapter 5.2.1.3 --- Elevation of Intracellular Hydrogen Peroxide Level in HK18 Treated R-HepG2 Cells --- p.144 / Chapter 5.2.1.4 --- Elevation of Intracellular Ca2+ Level in HK18 Treated R-HepG2 Cells --- p.146 / Chapter 5.3 --- Downstream Biochemical Changes Induced by HK18 on R-HepG2 Cells --- p.148 / Chapter 5.3.1 --- Activation of Caspase 3 of R-HepG2 Cells by HK18 as Demonstrated by Western Blot --- p.148 / Chapter 5.3.2 --- Induction of Caspases Activation of R-HepG2 Cells by HK18 as Demonstrated by Enzymatic Activity Assays --- p.150 / Chapter 5.4 --- Down-regulation of the Anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 Protein of R-HepG2 Cells by HK18 --- p.154 / Chapter 5.5 --- HK18 was Not a Substrate of P-glycoprotein Contents --- p.156 / Chapter Chapter 6 --- Discussion --- p.158 / Chapter 6.1 --- Cytotoxicity of HK18 --- p.159 / Chapter 6.1.1 --- HK18 was Cytotoxic to the Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line HepG2 and Multidrug Resistant Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line R-HepG2 --- p.159 / Chapter 6.1.2 --- Study of the Toxicity of HK18 --- p.160 / Chapter 6.2 --- Mechanistic Studies of the Cytotoxic Effects of HK18 on HepG2 Cells --- p.161 / Chapter 6.2.1 --- Apoptotic Cell Death Induction of HK18 on HepG2 Cells --- p.161 / Chapter 6.2.2 --- Studies of the Underlying Mechanisms of HK18 Induced Apoptosis of HepG2 Cells --- p.162 / Chapter 6.3 --- Mechanistic Studies of the Cytotoxic Effects of HK18 on R-HepG2 Cells --- p.181 / Chapter 6.3.1 --- Apoptotic Cell Death Induction of HK18 on R-HepG2 Cells --- p.181 / Chapter 6.3.2 --- Studies of the Underlying Mechanisms of HK18 Induced Apoptosis of HepG2 Cells --- p.181 / Chapter Chapter 7 --- Future Perspectives --- p.190 / Chapter Chapter 8 --- References --- p.193