Aimara as the Inca Official LanguageAccording to traditional prehispanic Andean history, the official tongue of the Incas was Quechua, a language whose craddle is assumed to have been the Cuzco area. In view of current Andean historical linguistics, however, it all leads to the conclusion that Quechua couldn‘t have originated in the Cuzco region, since at the time of the beginings of the Inca empire, the language spoken there was Aimara, which in turn had spread southeasthward, coming from the Central Andes. In the present paper, documentary, onomastics, and linguistic proper evidences are advanced to prove that the official language of the Incas, at least up to the reign of Tupac Inca Yupanqui, was Aimara and not Quechua. / Según la visión tradicional de la historia prehispánica, la lengua oficial de los incas habría sido el quechua, lengua que, a su vez, se habría originado en la región cuzqueña. De acuerdo con los estudios de lingüística histórica andina, todo conduce a pensar que, en verdad, el quechua no pudo haberse originado en el Cuzco, pues en dicha región, al tiempo en que se formaba el imperio, se hablaba aimara, lengua procedente de los Andes Centrales. En este trabajo presentamos evidencias de tipo documental, onomástico y lingüístico propiamente dicho que demuestran que los incas tenían el aimara como lengua oficial hasta por lo menos el gobierno de Tupac Inca Yupanqui.

In the central Andes, complex civilizational processes and dramatic biophysical phenomena have concurred for thousands of years. The confluence of these cultural and natural forces implies that environmental disturbances should be neither overemphasized nor ignored but adequately included as a variable in the modeling of the cultural processes of the Andean prehistory. In this sense, it is justified to clarify why and how people from pre-Hispanic urban centers preferred to accept risk associated with disaster-prone settings and how they eventually developed social responses to biophysical hazards through centuries.Framed within this purpose, this dissertation takes as a case study the prehistoric urban center of Cajamarquilla (138 ha) located in a flood-prone sector on the arid Peruvian central coast, and occupied mainly but intermittently for a period of almost 800 years between ca. AD 650 and 1400 (from the Middle Horizon to the Late Intermediate Period). My research was built on the basis of theoretical and methodological contributions of the Historical Ecology, Anthropology of Disasters, and Environmental Archaeology. Thus, it included conventional archeological procedures, a geomorphological characterization of the study area, and archaeobotanical and geoarchaeological methods and techniques. Although a range of contexts were analyzed, the study of the hydraulic (first-order irrigation canals) and storage (underground silos) systems associated with the site were strongly emphasized. Results indicate that the interspersed occurrence of droughts and floods with phases of dynamic constructive activity in Cajamarquilla express a form of risk normalization. This included the maximum use of clay soils and the involvement of the site residents with planned abandonment processes, although apparently sudden final abandonment has also been documented. While it has been verified that occupational dynamics in Cajamarquilla were constantly constrained by regional eco-climatic conditions, these always responded simultaneously to the socio-political controls of each era, so that social responses were not only multifactorial in their origins but also multipurpose in their ends, an illustration of this being the thousands of bottle-shaped, capacious silos that characterize the site. This makes sense with the integrative culture-nature worldviews of the indigenous Andean societies. Finally, this investigation also finds that, beyond the common socio-environmental connotation noted above, social action in Cajamarquilla also shows substantial differences between its different cultural occupations when dealing with environmental determinants: Its earliest inhabitants carefully planned an ambitious technological equipment (canals and silos), while its later inhabitants were characterized by their marked sense of opportunism and pragmatism both in the use/readjustment of such inherited technologies and the rules of community life within the settlement. In general, beyond usual binary frames that oppose determinism versus possibilism, or collapse versus resilience, the case of Cajamarquilla raises the anthropological need for an integrative approach focused on how and to what extent cultural and natural forces intermingle in urban life.

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A presente dissertação analisa o arranjo e a execução de entradas espanholas na fronteira ori-ental dos Andes centrais, entre os anos de 1538 e 1561. Nosso objetivo consiste em avaliar as origens do interesse, os resultados apresentados e as razões para o arrefecimento dos contatos. A região em questão identifica-se com as terras situadas a leste da cidade de Cuzco, parcial-mente inserida no quadrante que os incas chamavam de antisuyu. Algumas vezes, essas em-presas foram além daquele território, alcançando as terras baixas do vale; configurando desse modo a primeira série de contatos sistemáticos com o que hoje chamamos de Amazônia. No período pesquisado, a expansão da conquista em direção a essa região esteve sempre na agen-da dos castelhanos, ainda que não tenham logrado êxito em consolidar esse projeto / This Dissertation examines the planning and execution of the Spanish expeditions on the east-ern border of the Central Andes, between 1538 and 1561. Our purpose is inquire the origins of interest, the results presented and the reasons for the reduction of the contacts. The region in question is identified with the lands located at the east of Cuzco, partly inserted in the incas antisuyu. Sometimes, these expeditions were beyond that territory, reaching the lowlands; thereby configuring the first series of systematic contacts with the region that we now call Amazon. In the period surveyed, the expansion of conquest to these lands always been on the plans of the Castilians, although it has not been successfully

Regional Perspectives of the Formative Period in Perú: An IntroductionThe article doesn't have an abstract / El artículo no presenta resumen

Formative Period Sites in the Santiago de Chuco Area, La Libertad, North Central AndesThis paper deals with the results of surface surveys in the Santiago de Chuco area, La Libertad, northern highlands. The author identifies 42 sites belonging to the Formative Period. The ceramics show affinities with the Huacaloma sequence, the others are related to the northeastern area as well as with Salinar, San Blas and related traditions. The sites are distributed between 2400 to 4250 meters above sea level forming nucleated groups, many of them at altitudes between 2700 and 3300 (19), and 3400 to 3800 (16). / Este artículo trata de los resultados de prospecciones arqueológicas en el área de Santiago de Chuco, La Libertad, en la zona norte de los Andes Centrales. El autor identifica 42 sitios que pertenecen al Periodo Formativo. La cerámica muestra afinidades con la secuencia de Huacaloma, relaciones con el área nororiental así como con Salinar, San Blas y tradiciones relacionadas. Los sitios están distribuidos entre 2400 a 4250 metros sobre el nivel del mar formando grupos nucleados, muchos de los cuales se encuentran entre 2700 a 3300 (19) y 3400 a 3800 metros sobre el nivel del mar (16).

Advances, Problems and Prospects in Peruvian Archaic Period InvestigationsThe article doesn´t have an abstract / El artículo no presenta resumen

The Archaic Period in Huánuco and the Concept of ArchaicThe Archaic Period in the Central Andes can be considered as the period of postglacial adaptation and, in this sense, the necessity of comparative studies with similar processes in other parts of the world like Europe, Near East, or the Jomon Period in Japan should be revised. Not only for this purpose but also for Andean studies proper, it is necessary to proceed more sistematic excavations of the Archaic Period in Peru. The present article offers an interpretation of the socioreligious aspect of the Archaic Period or Initial Formative Period in the upper Huallaga basin in order to reconsider the concept of Archaic and reorganize a new chronological scheme for the Formative Period. / El Periodo Arcaico en los Andes Centrales es el periodo de la adaptación postglacial y en ese sentido es necesario profundizar en el estudio comparativo con Europa, Cercano Oriente o el Periodo Jomon en el Japón. Se tiene la necesidad, por lo tanto, de realizar sistemáticamente más excavaciones y análisis de los materiales y los datos. El presente artículo trata del aspecto socioreligioso de la fase Kotosh-Mito en el valle alto del Huallaga y presenta una idea del concepto del Arcaico y de la redefinición del Formativo con un nuevo esquema cronológico.

A Revision of the Evidence of the Existence of Preceramic Maize in the Central AndesA revision of all archaeological sites in the Central Andes is presented in which preceramic maize was found. The contexts and proofs that certify the finding are presented, discarting the doubtful sites. At the same time the botanical evidence of those maize items is shown and discussed. One arrives at the conclusion that there is not any doubt at all to the existence of preceramic maize with clear and proper characteristics, that differentiates it from the Mesoamerican societies. / Se hace una revisión de todos los yacimientos arqueológicos de los Andes Centrales en los que se ha encontrado maíz precerámico. Se presentan los contextos y las pruebas que certifican los hallazgos, descartándose los sitios dudosos. Al mismo tiempo se indican y se discuten las evidencias botánicas de los maíces en cuestión. Se llega a la conclusión que no cabe la menor duda de la existencia de maíz precerámico con características muy claras que lo diferencian del mesoamericano.

A presente dissertação analisa o arranjo e a execução de entradas espanholas na fronteira ori-ental dos Andes centrais, entre os anos de 1538 e 1561. Nosso objetivo consiste em avaliar as origens do interesse, os resultados apresentados e as razões para o arrefecimento dos contatos. A região em questão identifica-se com as terras situadas a leste da cidade de Cuzco, parcial-mente inserida no quadrante que os incas chamavam de antisuyu. Algumas vezes, essas em-presas foram além daquele território, alcançando as terras baixas do vale; configurando desse modo a primeira série de contatos sistemáticos com o que hoje chamamos de Amazônia. No período pesquisado, a expansão da conquista em direção a essa região esteve sempre na agen-da dos castelhanos, ainda que não tenham logrado êxito em consolidar esse projeto / This Dissertation examines the planning and execution of the Spanish expeditions on the east-ern border of the Central Andes, between 1538 and 1561. Our purpose is inquire the origins of interest, the results presented and the reasons for the reduction of the contacts. The region in question is identified with the lands located at the east of Cuzco, partly inserted in the incas antisuyu. Sometimes, these expeditions were beyond that territory, reaching the lowlands; thereby configuring the first series of systematic contacts with the region that we now call Amazon. In the period surveyed, the expansion of conquest to these lands always been on the plans of the Castilians, although it has not been successfully