Orientador: Prof. Dr. José Antonio Souza / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanociências e Materiais Avançados, Santo André, 2018. / O objetivo deste trabalho e sintetizar materiais magneticos e semicondutores ocos micro/nanoestruturados hierarquicamente, para obter um melhor entendimento das propriedades fisicas e explorar aplicacoes tecnologicas. Inicialmente, microtubos de hematita e magnetita foram sintetizados por oxidacao termica juntamente com uma corrente eletrica aplicada e utilizando-se o microfio de ferro metalico como precursor. A fraccao volumetrica de Fe2O3(hematite) e Fe3O4(magnetite) nos microtubos e a formacao das nanoestruturas de hematite na superficie pode ser controlada por alteracoes sistematicas dos parametros de sintese tais como temperatura, rampa de aquecimento, tempo de aquecimento e valor da corrente electrica. A reacao quimica de oxidacao envolve um processo onde uma fina camada de oxido e formada primeiro na superficie do metal, seguida por difusao simultanea de ions metalicos atraves da camada oxida e difusao de oxigenio da atmosfera para o interior. A difusao para fora e mais rapida, levando a criacao de vacancias que coalescem em poros formando os microtubos. Medidas de resistividade eletrica in situ foram realizadas durante o processo de oxidacao mostrando todo o processo de formacao do microtubo. Imagens de microscopia eletronica de varredura mostram a morfologia do microtubo com diametro variando de 40 ¿Êm a 100 ¿Êm e comprimento de 5 mm. Medidas de difracao de raios-X em po evidenciam a presenca de fases cristalinas de hematita (Fe2O3) e magnetita (Fe3O4) nos microtubos. Nanoestruturas de hematita aparecem em forma de bastoes e fios dispersos homogeneamente ao redor da superficie do microtubo com diametros de 80-300 nm e comprimento de 1-5 ¿Êm. Experimentos in vitro envolvendo aderencia, migracao e proliferacao de culturas de celulas de fibroblastos na superficie dos microtubos indicaram a ausencia de citotoxicidade para este material. Tambem o calculo do torque e da forca magnetica desses microtubos com nanofios em funcao do gradiente de campo magnetico externo, mostrou que ele e robusto, abrindo a possibilidade para fabricacao de bio-microrobos magneticos para aplicacao em biotecnologia. Por outro lado, microarquiteturas ocas de SnS e ZnS decoradas com nanoestruturas foram sintetizadas por evaporacao termica livre de catalisadores utilizando microfios de metal e po de enxofre como materiais de partida. Para o SnS, observamos formacao de uma estrutura oca composta por uma camada metalica de Sn na superficie interna, e uma camada de SnS de estrutura ortorrombica com nanoestruturas de SnS na superficie. Para o ZnS, descobrimos a formacao de uma esfera oca com uma camada metalica na parte interna, uma camada de ZnS com fase cubica, e sobre ela nanoestruturas de ZnS com fase cristalina hexagonal cresceram homogeneamente. O diametro da microsfera e de 415 ¿Êm e os nanofios tem um diametro e comprimento medio de 70 nm e 7 ¿Êm, respectivamente. As microestruturas ocas semicondutoras de ZnS e SnS exibiram atividade eficiente para degradar azul de metileno sob irradiao com luz solar simulada. Os resultados revelam que essas nano/microestruturas possuem alta fotoatividade para degradacao organica. / The aim of this work is to synthesize hierarchically micro/nanostructured hollow magnetic and semiconductor materials, to obtain a better understanding on the physical properties, and find technological applications. Initially, hematite and magnetite microtubes were synthesized by thermal oxidation process along with the presence of an applied electrical current and using metallic iron microwire as a precursor. The volume fraction of both Fe2O3 (hematite) and Fe3O4 (magnetite) phase on microtubes can be controlled as well as surface nanostructures formation of hematite by systematic change of the synthesis parameters such as temperature, heating rate, annealing time and electrical current value. The oxidation chemical reaction involves a process where a thin oxide layer is formed first on the metal surface, followed by simultaneous outward diffusion of metal ions through the oxide scale and inward diffusion of oxygen from the atmosphere into the core. In our case, the outward diffusion is faster leading to the creation of vacancies which coalesce into voids forming the microtubes. In situ electrical resistivity measurements were carried out during the oxidation process showing the whole process of the microtube formation. Scanning electron microscopy images show microtube morphology with diameter ranging from 40 ìm to 100 ìm and length of 5 mm. X-ray powder diffraction measurements evidence the presence of hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) crystal phases comprising microtubes. Nanostructures of hematite appear in form of sticks and wires homogeneously dispersed on the microtube surface with diameters ranking from 80 nm to 300 nm and length of 1 to 5 ìm. In vitro experiments involving adherence, migration, and proliferation of fibroblasts cell culture on the surface of the microtubes indicated the absence of immediate cytotoxicity for this material. We have also calculated both torque and driving magnetic force for these microtubes with nanowires as a function of external magnetic field gradient which were found to be robust opening the possibility for magnetic bio micro-robot device fabrication and application in biotechnology. On the other hand, SnS and ZnS hollow microarchitectures decorated with nanostructures were synthesized by catalysis free thermal evaporation technique using metal microwires and sulfur powder as starting materials. For SnS, we observed a hollow formation comprised of a thin metallic Sn layer in the inner surface, SnS orthorhombic structure thick layer with SnS nanostructures on the top. For ZnS, we found out the formation of hollow sphere with a thin metallic layer in the inner part, a thick cubic phase layer of ZnS, and on this second phase, nanostructures of ZnS hexagonal crystal phase grew up homogeneously. The microsphere diameter is about 415 ìm and the nanowires on the surface have average diameter of 70 nm and length 7 ìm. ZnS and SnS hollow semiconducting microstructures have exhibited efficient activity to degrade the methylene blue under simulated sunlight irradiation. The results reveal that these nano/microstructures have high photoactivity to organic degradation.

Bright emitters with photoluminescence in the spectral region of 800–1600 nm are increasingly important as optical reporters for molecular imaging, sensing, and telecommunication and as active components in electrooptical and photovoltaic devices. Their rational design is directly linked to suitable methods for the characterization of their signal-relevant properties, especially their photoluminescence quantum yield (Φf ). Aiming at the development of bright semiconductor nanocrystals with emission >1000 nm, we designed a new NIR/IR integrating sphere setup for the wavelength region of 600–1600 nm. We assessed the performance of this setup by acquiring the corrected emission spectra and Φf of the organic dyes |trybe, IR140, and IR26 and several infrared (IR)-emissive Cd₁₋ₓHgₓTe and PbS semiconductor nanocrystals and comparing them to data obtained with two independently calibrated fluorescence instruments absolutely or relative to previously evaluated reference dyes. Our results highlight special challenges of photoluminescence studies in the IR ranging from solvent absorption to the lack of spectral and intensity standards together with quantum dot-specific challenges like photobrightening and photodarkening and the size-dependent air stability and photostability of differently sized oleate-capped PbS colloids. These effects can be representative of lead chalcogenides. Moreover, we redetermined the Φf of IR26, the most frequently used IR reference dye, to 1.1 × 10⁻³ in 1,2-dichloroethane DCE with a thorough sample reabsorption and solvent absorption correction. Our results indicate the need for a critical reevaluation of Φf values of IR-emissive nanomaterials and offer guidelines for improved Φf measurements.

Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, Beziehungen zwischen den kristallchemischen Eigenschaften und dem beobachteten anomalen Verhalten im spezifischen elektrischen Widerstand (nicht-magnetischer Kondo-Effekt) aufzuzeigen und zusammenhängend zu interpretieren. Verbindungen, an denen dieser Effekt beobachtet wurde, werden aus einem Übergangs-, oder Actinidmetall mit je einem Vertreter der 15. (Pniktogene) und 16. Gruppe (Chalkogene) des Periodensystems gebildet und kristallisieren im PbFCl-Strukturtyp. Da zu ternären Actinidmetall-Pniktid-Chalkogeniden (z.B. ThAsSe, UPS) nur sehr wenige chemische und kristallographische Informationen existieren, wurden in dieser Arbeit umfassende Untersuchungen zur Kristallchemie ternärer Phasen aus den Systemen M-Pn-Q (M = Zr, Hf, La-Ce; Pn = As, Sb; Q = Se, Te durchgeführt. Der Schwerpunkt lag dabei auf der strukturellen Lokalisierung der beobachteten Widerstandsanomalie und der Erarbeitung chemisch-physikalischer Eigenschaftsbeziehungen. Die Darstellung der untersuchten ternären Phasen in Form von Einkristallen gelang über exothermen Chemischen Transport mit Jod. Da die erhaltenen Kristalle bis zu mehreren Millimetern groß sind, konnten an ein und demselben Kristallindividuum sowohl die stoffliche Charakterisierung (EDXS, WDXS, ICP-OES, LA-ICP-MS, CIC) und die strukturelle Charakterisierung, als auch die Messung der physikalischen Eigenschaften erfolgen. Es konnte u.a. gezeigt werden, dass ZrAs1,4Se0,5 und HfAs1,7Se0,2 ein ähnlich ungewöhnliches Verhalten im temperaturabhängigen elektrischen Widerstand zeigen, welches bereits an Thorium-Arsenid-Seleniden und Uran-Phosphid-Sulfiden beobachtet wurde. Desweiteren gelang es den beobachteten Verlauf im elektrischen Widerstand, mit seinem Minium bei etwa T = 15 K, auf intrinsische strukturelle Merkmale in der anionischen Arsen-Teilstruktur zurückzuführen. / The aim of this work was, to evaluate and interpret a relationship between the crystal-chemical properties and the observed unusual behavior in the electrical resistivity (non-magnetic Kondo-effect). Compounds, which show such an effect, are formed by a transition- or actinide-metal with both a group 15 element and a group 16 element of the periodic table. All these compounds crystallizing in the PbFCl type of structure. Because of less crystallographic and chemical information about actinide-metal-pnictide-chalcogenides (i.e. ThAsSe, UPS), intensive investigation were made concerning the crystal-chemistry of ternary phases of the systems M-Pn-Q (M = Zr, Hf, La-Ce; Pn = As, Sb; Q = Se, Te. Our studies were focused on the structurally localization of the observed anomaly in the electrical resistivity and the evaluation of chemical-physical relations of properties. The synthesis of the investigated ternary phases was realized by exothermically Chemical Transport with iodine as transport agent. The dimension of the synthesized crystals allowed a chemical (EDXS, WDXS, ICP-OES, LA-ICP-MS, CIC) and structurally characterization, as well as a determination of the physical properties on one large single crystal. It could be shown, that ZrAs1,4Se0,5 and HfAs1,7Se0,2 reveal a similar unusual behavior in the temperature dependent electrical resistivity, as it was observed in thorium-arsenide-selenides and uranium-phosphide-sulphides. In conclusion, the non-magnetic Kondo-effect, which was found in the low-temperature range (about 15 K), arises from structurally features of the anionic sublattice with arsenic.

<p> </p> <p>Combating climate change requires society to shift to using clean, renewable sources of energy as quickly as possible. Photovoltaics (PVs) are a promising source of renewable energy due to the broad availability of solar radiation over the Earth’s surface and the low cost of PV modules. While silicon solar cells dominate the current PV market, some drawbacks motivate the search for other solar materials. Silicon’s indirect band gap necessitates using<br> thick (>100 μm) absorber layers which limits applications to rigid substrates, and manufacturing silicon wafers suitable for solar cell applications requires slow batch processes,<br> hindering the rapid deployment of PV technology.</p> <p><br> One opportunity for realizing rapid manufacturing of PV modules is solution processing, wherein a solar cell is deposited with the use of liquid solutions containing the necessary constituent elements. A solution processing approach could be done in a roll-to-roll format in which a flexible substrate is coated at high speed to create a thin, flexible PV device. Such an approach is expected to dramatically increase the throughput capability of a photovoltaic manufacturing line. To realize the benefits of solution processing, suitable liquid-phase chemistries must be developed to enable the deposition of the desired absorber material while minimizing the incorporation of undesirable contaminants. One such approach is the<br> amine-thiol solvent system which is notable for its ability to solubilize not only metal salts, but also metal sulfides, metal selenides, and pure metals. This makes the amine-thiol system a promising candidate for the deposition of metal chalcogenide absorber layer materials.</p> <p><br> In this work, the chemistry of the amine-thiol system is studied in detail and reaction mechanisms governing the interaction of amine-thiol solutions with precursors relevant to the Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 material system are investigated. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Mass Spectrometry, and X-Ray Absorption measurements are performed to study this system. Structures for the metal thiolate species that form in these reactions are proposed, along with the products of the pyrolysis reaction that converts the thiolate species to the desired metal sulfides. The utility of this understanding is discussed.</p> <p><br> The amine-thiol system is further applied to the synthesis of AgIn(S,Se)2, a material with some similarities to the more common metal chalcogenide CuInSe2 but studied far less<br> thoroughly. The material and optoelectronic properties of AgIn(S,Se)2 are characterized. X-Ray Diffraction, Hall Effect Measurements, Kelvin Probe Force Miscropscopy, and Quantitative Photoluminescence are all performed on AgIn(S,Se)2 thin films. AgIn(S,Se)2 films are found to exhibit high carrier mobility, benign grain boundaries, and strong photoluminescence emission, suggesting that AgIn(S,Se)2 may function as an effective absorber layer<br> material for thin-film solar cells. Challenges facing its successful adoption as a solar cell material as discussed.<br> </p> <p>In this work, a novel method is developed to calibrate photoluminescence spectrometers for absolute photon counts, enabling one to calculate the absolute number of photons leaving a photoluminescence sample. This enables an estimation of the Quasi-Fermi Level Splitting of an absorber layer (and hence open-circuit voltage of a solar cell) while only measuring a bare absorber layer film. The experimental method and required numerical analysis of the<br> data are described herein.</p>

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A new approach to the discovery of high absorbing semiconductors for solar cells was taken by working under a set of design principles and taking a systemic methodology. Three transition metal chalcogenides at varying states of development were evaluated within this framework. Iron pyrite (FeS���) is well known to demonstrate excellent absorption, but the coexistence with metallic iron sulfides was found to disrupt its semiconducting properties. Manganese diselenide (MnSe���), a material heavily researched for its magnetic properties, is proposed as a high absorbing alternative to iron pyrite that lacks destructive impurity phases. For the first time, a MnSe��� thin film was synthesized and the optical properties were characterized. Finally, CuTaS���, a known but never characterized material, is also proposed as a high absorbing semiconductor based on the design principles and experimental results. / Graduation date: 2013

In recent years there is an increasing awareness of the importance of chiral phosphorus ligands in transition metal organometallic chemistry because of the utility of such complexes in homogeneous catalytic reactions. This thesis deals with synthetic, spectroscopic and X-ray crystallographic studies on ruthenium complexes of chiral and achiral P-N-P type ligands, known as "diphosphazanes", with emphasis on ruthenium carbonyl clusters. Several ruthenium carbonyl clusters have been synthesized and characterized by elemental analyses, ER and NMR (lH, nC and 3lP) spectroscopic data. In several instances, the molecular structures of the clusters have been confirmed by single crystal X-ray diffraction studies. Chapter 1 provides a brief overview of various types of chiral phosphorus ligands and general synthetic routes to diphosphazanes. A brief review of the transition metal chemistry of diphosphazanes and diphosphazane chalcogenides (published since 1994) is presented A review of the literature on the carbonyl clusters of the group-8 transition metals (Fe, Ru, Os) bearing mono- and diphosphines is also included in this chapter The scope and aim of the present investigation is outlined at the end of this chapter. Chapter 2 provides the results obtained in the present investigation and a detailed discussion of the spectroscopic and crystallographic data. The essential feature of the work is summarized at the end of the chapter. Chapter 3 gives a detailed account of the experimental procedure for the synthesis of the compounds and spectroscopic and analytical measurements. The experimental details of X-ray structure determination are also given in this chapter. To save space, the coordinates of the H-atoms and the calculated and observed structure factor tables are not included. In some cases, reference to CCDC deposition number is included. The references of the literature are compiled at the end of the thesis and are indicated in the text by appropriate numbers appearing as superscripts. The compounds synthesized in the present study are represented by bold Arabic numerals and are listed in Appendix I. The abbreviations employed in the thesis conform to those generally used in Chemical Abstracts.

The absence of long-range order in glassy chalcogenides provides the convenience of changing the elemental ratios and hence the properties over a wide range. The interesting properties exhibited by chalcogenide glasses make them suitable materials for Phase Change Memories (PCM) and other applications such as infrared optical devices, photo-receptors, sensors, waveguides, etc. One of the most remarkable properties of chalcogenides is their electrical switching behavior. Reversible (threshold type) or irreversible (memory type) switching from a high resistance OFF state to a low resistance ON state in glassy chalcogenides occurs at a critical voltage called the threshold/switching voltage (VT). Investigations on the switching behavior and its composition dependence throw light on the local structural effects of amorphous chalcogenide semiconductors and also help us in identifying suitable samples for PCM applications. Thermal analysis by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) has been extensively used in glass science, particularly for measurements of thermal parameters such as enthalpy of relaxation, specific heat change, etc., near glass transition. Quite recently, the conventional DSC has been sophisticated by employing a composite temperature profile for heating, resulting in the Temperature Modulated DSC (TMDSC) or Alternating DSC (ADSC). Measurements made using ADSC reveal thermal details with enhanced accuracy and resolution, and this has lead to a better understanding of the nature of glass transition. The thermal parameters obtained using DSC/ADSC are also vital for understanding the electrical switching behavior of glassy chalcogenides. The motivation of this thesis was twofold: The first was to develop a novel, high voltage programmable power supply for electrical switching analysis of samples exhibiting high VT, and second to investigate the thermal and electrical switching behavior of certain Se-Te based glasses with Ge and Sb additives. The thesis contains seven chapters: Chapter 1: This chapter provides an overview of amorphous semiconductors (a-SC) with an emphasis on preparation and properties of glassy chalcogenides. The various structural models and topological thresholds of a-SC are discussed with relations to the glass forming ability of materials. The electronic band models and defect states are also dealt with. The essentials of electrical switching behavior of chalcogenides are discussed suggesting the electronic nature of switching and the role of thermal properties on switching. Chapter 2: The second chapter essentially deals with theory and practice of the experimental techniques adopted in the thesis work. The details of the melt-quenching method of synthesizing glassy samples are provided. Considering the importance, the theory of thermal analysis by DSC & ADSC, are discussed in detail, highlighting the advantages of the latter method adopted in the thesis work. The instrumentation and electronics, developed and used for electrical switching analysis are also introduced at a block diagram level. Finally, the methods used for structural analysis are briefed. Chapter 3: This chapter is dedicated to the design and development details of the programmable High Voltage dc Power Supply (HVPS: 1750 V, 45 mA) undertaken in the thesis work. The guidelines used for power supply topology selection, the specifications and block diagram of the HVPS are provided in that sequence. The operation of the HVPS is discussed using the circuit diagram approach. The details of software control are also given. The performance validations of the HVPS, undertaken through voltage & current regulation tests, step & frequency response tests are discussed. Finally, the sample-test results on the electrical switching behavior of representative Al20As16Te64 and Ge25Te65Se10 samples, obtained using both the current & voltage sweep options of the HVPS developed are illustrated. Chapter 4: Results of the thermally induced transitions governed by structural changes which are driven by network connectivity in the GexSe35-xTe65 (17 ≤ x ≤ 25) glasses, as revealed by ADSC experiments, are discussed in this chapter. It is found that the GexSe35-xTe65 glasses with x ≤ 20 exhibit two crystallization exotherms (Tc1 & Tc2), whereas those with x ≥ 20.5, show a single crystallization reaction upon heating (Tc). The glass transition temperature of GexSe35-xTe65 glasses is found to show a linear, but not-steep increase, indicating a progressive and not an appreciable build-up in network connectivity with Ge addition. The exothermic reaction at Tc1 has been found to correspond to the partial crystallization of the glass into hexagonal Te and the reaction at Tc2 is associated with the additional crystallization of rhombohedral Ge-Te phase. It is also found that the first crystallization temperature Tc1 of GexSe35-xTe65 glasses of lower Ge concentrations (with x ≤ 20), increases progressively with Ge content and eventually merges with Tc2 at x = 20.5 (<r> = 2.41); this behavior has been understood on the basis of the reduction in Te-Te bonds of lower energy and an increase in Ge-Te bonds of higher energy, with increasing Ge content. Chapter 5: This chapter deals with the electrical switching studies on GexSe35-xTe65 (17 ≤ x ≤ 25) glasses, with an emphasis on the role of network connectivity/rigidity on the switching behavior. It is found that the switching voltage (VT) increases with Ge content, exhibiting a sudden jump at x=20, the Rigidity Percolation Threshold (RPT) of the system. In addition, the switching behavior changes from memory to threshold type at the RPT and the threshold switching is found to be repetitive for more than 1500 cycles. Chapter 6: In this chapter, the results of thermal analysis (by ADSC) and electrical switching investigations on SbxSe55-xTe45 (2 ≤ x ≤ 9) are discussed. It is found that the addition of trivalent Sb contributes very meagerly to network growth but directly affects the structural relaxation effects at Tg. Further, SbxSe55-xTe45 glasses exhibit memory type electrical switching, which is understood on the basis of poor thermal stability of the samples. The metallicity factor is observed to outweigh the network factor in the composition dependence of VT of SbxSe55-xTe45 glasses. Chapter 7: The chapter 7 summarizes the results obtained in the thesis work and provides the scope for future work. The references are cited in the text along with the first author’s name and year of publication, and are listed at the end of each chapter in alphabetical order.

La thèse de Giovanni BETTI BENEVENTI portes sur la caractérisation électrique et la modélisationphysique de dispositifs de mémoire non-volatile à changement de phase. Cette thèse a été effectuée dans le cadre d’une cotutelle avec l’Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia (Italie).Le manuscrit en anglais comporte quatre chapitres précédés d’une introduction et terminés par uneconclusion générale.Le premier chapitre présent un résumé concernant l’état de l’art des mémoires a changement de phase. Le deuxième chapitre est consacré aux résultats de caractérisation matériau et électrique obtenus sur déposition blanket et dispositifs de mémoire à changement de phase (PCM) basées sur le nouveau matériau GeTe dopé carbone (GeTeC).Le chapitre trois s’intéresse à l’implémentation et à la caractérisation expérimentale d’un setup demesure de bruit a basse fréquence sur dispositifs électroniques a deux terminaux développé auxlaboratoires de l’Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia en Italie.Enfin, dans le dernier chapitre est présentée une analyse rigoureuse de l’effet d’auto-chauffage Joulesur la caractéristique I-V des mémoires a changement de phase intégrant le matériau dans la phase polycristalline. / Within this Ph.D. thesis work new topics in the field of Non-Volatile Memories technologies have been investigated, with special emphasis on the study of novel materials to be integrated in Phase-Change Memory (PCM) devices, namely:(a) Investigation of new phase-change materialsWe have fabricated PCM devices integrating a novel chalcogenide material: Carbon-doped GeTe (or simply, GeTeC). We have shown that C doping leads to very good data retention performances: PCM cells integrating GeTeC10% can guarantee a 10 years fail temperature of about 127°C, compared to the 85°C of GST. Furthermore, C doping reduces also fail time dispersion. Then our analysis has pointed out the reduction of both RESET current and power for increasing carbon content. In particular, GeTeC10% PCM devices yield about a 30% of RESET current reduction in comparison to GST and GeTe ones, corresponding to about 50% of RESET energy decrease.Then, resistance window and programming time of GeTeC devices are comparable to those of GST.(b) Advanced electrical characterization techniquesWe have implemented, characterized and modeled a measurement setup for low-frequency noise characterization on two-terminal semiconductor devices.(c) Modeling for comprehension of physical phenomenaWe have studied the impact of Self-induced Joule-Heating (SJH) effect on the I-V characteristics of fcc polycrystalline-GST-based PCM cells in the memory readout region. The investigation has been carried out by means of electrical characterization and electro-thermal simulations.