The following research paper was concerned with five basic objectives:(1) outlining the major theoretical and methodological approaches used in the reconstruction of early hominid social behavior/social structure as a context in which to view Richard Wrangham's and Michael Ghiglieri's phylogenetic models of stem-hominid social structure.(2) examining Wrangham's and Ghiglieri's models of stem-hominid and chimpanzee social structure.(3) indicating how theoretical and methodological aspects of structure essentially represent an extension of the theoretical and methodological approaches the same researchers applied to their models of chimpanzee social structure.(4) addressing the theoretical and methodological deficiences of Wrangham's and Ghiglieri's models of chimpanzee social structure.(5) providing suggestions for improved phylogenetic models of early hominid social structure.The first objective was achieved by: (a) reviewing Tooby and Devore's (1986) and Wrangham's (1986) evaluations of the major theoretical approaches and methodologies used in the reconstruction of hominid social behavior/structure (b) defining, classifying and evaluating Wrangham's and Ghiglieri's phylogenetic approaches within this context.The second objective was accomplished by outlining, analyzing, and comparing/contrasting Wrangham's and Ghiglieri's phylogenetic models of stem-hominid social structure (i.e.Wrangham 1986; Ghiglieri 1987, 1989) and Wrangham's and Ghiglieri's models of chimpanzee social structure (i.e. Wrangham 1975, 1979; Ghiglieri 1984, 1985, 1987, 1989).The third objective was achieved by recognizing how Wrangham and Ghiglieri used/stressed principles and concepts derived from evolutionary biology and/or behavioral ecology to develop their models of stem-hominid and chimpanzee social structure. This analysis showed that Wrangham's models of social structure were more favorably inclined toward the method of behavioral ecology than Ghiglieri's models, which favored a sociobiological paradigm. Furthermore, although neither researcher relied exclusively on the above theoretical approaches, the main thrust of their argument often centered around it. For instance, Wrangham's analysis of chimpanzee social structure (Wrangham 1975, 1979) indicated that the ultimate cause of that structure was ecological i.e., patchy food distribution leads to wide female dispersal for optimal foraging efficiency, which in turn favors a male kin breeding group that can maintain a territority that includes several individual female ranges. In contrast, Wrangham's phylogenetic model of the social structure of the stem-hominid (Wrangham, 1986) suggested that phylogenetic inertia may be partially responsible for the shared social features found among African Hominoidea. However, in the same work, Wrangham also suggested that further socioecological analysis of African apes may indicate whether food distribution and its effects on female dispersion/association may partially explain conservative African ape social features.Ghiglieri's phylogenetic model of the stem-hominid (1987, 1989), on the other hand, explained the conservative social features of bonobos, common chimpanzees, and hominids to be primarily a product of phylogenetic inertia and sexual selection. Furthermore, for Ghiglieri the most important sexual selection variable was a male communal reproductive strategy. This, according to Ghiglieri, is the ultimate cause of social structure. Notably, Ghiglieri (1984, 1985) had earlier stressed the overiding importance of a male communal reproductive strategy but was less dogmatic in his insistence that chimpanzees had essentially solved their ecological problems (e.g. that they had solved the food distribution problem by fusion-fission sociality; predators were never a real problem). Nevertheless, Ghiglieri's earlier position similarily expressed the idea that a communal reproductive strategy constituted the ultimate cause of social structure.The fourth objective was accomplished by presentation of an alternative model of chimpanzee social behavior which suggested that structure; the effect of phylogenetic inertia on social structure; chimpanzee social structure is the combined product of ecological and sexual selection forces: female optimal foraging, male mating strategies, and predator pressure. The model was considered by the author to be unique in that it integrated essential aspects of both Wrangham's and Ghiglieri's models and, in addition, provided support for Alexander's (1974) contention that predation pressure is an ultimate cause of ape social structure. The model also outlined scenarios for the evolution of chimpanzee group._ extensibility (fusion-fission sociality) and the capacity for warfare among chimpanzees.The last objective was achieved by a discussion of the implications that the author's model had for phylogenetic models of stem-hominid social structure. In this discussion the author reviewed the following issues as they related to the phylogenetic reconstruction of hominid social structure: the role of phylogeny and/or ecology in the causation of social encountered when using a phylogenetic referential model for the personal biases that enter into phylogenetic econstructions; pitfalls reconstruction of early hominid social evolution; the significance of chimpanzee models of social structure.The importance of the preceding study lay in its ability to stimulate improved conceptual models of African hominoid social structure. / Department of Anthropology

Grooming relationships between adult male chimpanzees are often reciprocal, i.e. individuals receive grooming from those they groom. Grooming may be reciprocated at the same time it is received (mutual grooming), or later within the same grooming session. Alternatively, it can be reciprocated at a much later stage, in another session. An analysis of individual grooming sessions at the dyadic level was used to investigate how chimpanzees reciprocate grooming within these sessions. This study describes the grooming and reciprocation of grooming by male chimpanzees, living in a multi-male, multi-female group at the Edinburgh Zoo, Scotland. A method for the analysis of dyadic grooming relationships was based on the presence or absence of mutual and unilateral grooming in a session, which allows seven types of grooming session to be distinguished. Grooming session was defined empirically, and the duration of the bout criterion interval (BCl) depended on the presence or absence of oestrous females. For comparison, however, the same BCI was used throughout. Without oestrous females, grooming was primarily reciprocated in sessions with mutual grooming and unilateral grooming by both participants. This kind of session proved highly cooperative and each male adjusted the duration of his unilateral grooming to that of mutual grooming, rather than to the duration of unilateral grooming by the other male. Mutual grooming was less important to dyads which had a strong grooming relationship. It is suggested that mutual grooming serves as an indication of the motivation to groom unilaterally. There was no indication that males reciprocated on the basis of TIT-FOR-TAT within these sessions, or between sessions in general. Alternative hypotheses of mutual grooming were only partly confirmed in that some dyads used mutual grooming to reduce the (already very short) time they spent in grooming. However, mutual grooming did not arise from the accidental overlap in the grooming of two partners. In the presence of oestrous females, grooming cooperation between the males broke down, and this was the result of heightened aggression as well as the presence of oestrous females itself. The balance in grooming given and received shifted in the direction of dominants (i.e. dominants received more) under the influence of oestrous females, but in the opposite direction under the influence of aggression. Feeding had no effect on the reciprocity of groormng. There was considerable dyadic variation. Some dyads groomed more when there were oestrous females, others groomed less. Some dyads had proportionally less mutual grooming with increasing numbers of oestrous females, others had more. There were generally no clear patterns of grooming reciprocation over longer time-spans than the session, but the overall degree of reciprocity of a dyad was frequently reached at the end of each day. Tracing the degree of reciprocation over a few weeks indicated that some dyads' grooming was governed by dominance, whereas that of others by cooperation.

Functional analysis techniques traditionally used in the assessment of problem behaviors in humans were used to identify the reinforcing consequences for undesirable, human-directed behaviors such as feces throwing and spitting in two captive adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). The first subject's problem behaviors were maintained by both positive and negative reinforcement contingencies, with rates being highest when the display of inappropriate behaviors resulted in access to social attention and juice. The implementation of a function-based treatment plan combining functional communication training with extinction resulted in a 90% reduction in the chimpanzee's inappropriate behaviors. No function was identified for the second subject's inappropriate behaviors. This project represents one of the first attempts to apply these function-based behavioral techniques to a non-human subject.

Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile DNA sequences that can move from one location to another in the genome. These elements encode regulatory features including transcriptional promotion and termination signals facilitating the production of new transcripts (or elements). The elements thus produced are inserted back into the genome. Due to their insertional capacity and encoded regulatory features, TEs have, in recent years, been recognized as significant contributors to regulatory variation both within and between species. In comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes it has been hypothesized that the genetic basis of the phenotypic differences that distinguish them may be the result of regulatory differences existing between the two species. Since TEs inserted in proximity to genes can significantly alter gene expression patterns, this research aims at exploring the influence of TE sequences and retrotransposons in particular in the evolution of gene regulation between humans and chimpanzees. A first systematic search of one particular class of retrotransposons - endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) was carried out in the chimpanzee genome. Forty two families of ERVs were identified in the chimpanzee genome including the discovery of 9 previously unknown families in humans. The vast majority of these families were found to have orthologs in the human genome except for two (CERV 1/PTERV1 and CERV 2) families. The two CERV families without orthologs in the human genome display a patchy distribution among primates. Nine families of chimpanzee ERVs have been transpositionally active since the human-chimpanzee divergence, while only two families have been active in the human lineage. The genomic differences [INDEL variation (80-12,000 bp in length)] between humans and chimpanzees are laid out. The INDEL variation located in or near genes is categorized in detail and is correlated with differences in gene expression patterns in a variety of organs and tissues. Results indicate that the majority of the INDEL variation between the two species is associated with retrotransposon sequences and that this variation is significantly correlated with differences in gene expression most notably in brain and testes. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that retrotransposon mediated regulatory variation may have been a significant factor in human/chimpanzee evolution.

Title from second page of PDF document. Includes bibliographical references (p. 145-173).

Culture is an important means by which both human and non-human animals transmit useful behaviours between individuals and generations. Amongst animals, chimpanzees live particularly varied cultural lives. However, the processes and factors that influence whether chimpanzees will be motivated to copy an observed behaviour are poorly understood. In this thesis, I explore various factors and their influence on social learning decisions in chimpanzees. In turn, the chapters examine the influence of (i) rank-bias towards copying dominant individuals, (ii) majority and contextual influences and finally (iii) individual differences in proclivity for social learning. In my first experiment, I found evidence that chimpanzees are highly motivated to copy the behaviour of subordinate demonstrators and innovators in an open-diffusion puzzle-box paradigm. In contrast, behaviours seeded by dominant individuals were not transmitted as faithfully. This finding has important implications for our understanding of the emergence of novel traditions. In my second experiment, I found that some chimpanzees are highly motivated to relinquish an existing behaviour to adopt an equally rewarding alternative if it is consistently demonstrated by just one or two individuals within a group context, but not in a dyadic context. This contrasts with prior studies which argue that chimpanzees are highly conservative and may hint at a hitherto unrecognised process by which conformity-like behaviour might occur. Finally, I performed a novel type of ‘meta' analysis on 16 social learning studies carried out at our research site to determine whether individuals demonstrated consistency in their social learning behaviour across experimental contexts. Strong evidence for individual differences in social information use was found, with females more likely to use social information than males. No effect of age, research experience or rearing history was found. This presents a promising new method of studying individual differences in behaviour using the accumulated findings of previous work at a study site.

No description available.

Comparative studies of taste perception have found that primates may differ markedly in their sensitivity for substances perceived as sweet by humans. These findings raise questions about the reason that may underlie these differences in sweet-taste sensitivity between species. The aim of the present study was to assess the taste responsiveness of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) to seven substances tasting sweet to humans and to compare the results with those of other primate species. Using a two-bottle preference test (1 min) I found that the taste preference thresholds of the chimpanzees for five food-associated carbohydrates ranged between 20-30 mM for sucrose, 20-50 mM for fructose, 60-80 mM for glucose, 50-80 mM for maltose, and 30-80 mM for lactose. Taste preference thresholds for two steviol glycosides ranged from 0.04-0.05 mM for stevioside, and 0.03-0.05 mM for rebaudioside A. The chimpanzees displayed clear preferences for all sweet-tasting substances presented. In line with data obtained in other primates, the taste preference threshold of the chimpanzees for sucrose was lower compared to the other carbohydrates presented and the taste preference thresholds for stevioside and rebaudioside A were lower compared to sucrose. In general, the taste sensitivity of the chimpanzees fell into the range of data reported in other nonhuman primate species. Interestingly, the taste preference thresholds of the chimpanzees reported here are similar to the taste detection thresholds obtained in humans, despite the fact that the former are only a conservative approximation of an animal’s taste sensitivity. This suggests that chimpanzees may be as sweet-taste sensitive as humans.

As a contribution to the existing knowledge of grooming in primates five and a half years of grooming data were examined from a group of free-living chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in the Budongo Forest, Uganda, to investigate various functional significances of grooming behaviour within the context of social reinforcement. The fission–fusion social structure of chimpanzees results in group members not moving around as a single unit, but forming temporary units as the need arises. This reduces opportunities for individuals to groom others and therefore, based on time and association constraints alone, grooming was as expected found to be unevenly distributed among group members. Grooming patterns found among this group of chimpanzees were comparable to those observed in other free-living populations with variations possibly being attributed to resource base, population numbers and differences in age-sex class composition. One of the suggested social benefits of grooming is that it is used to enhance reproductive success, either by allowing males to enhance their proximity to oestrous females, or by influencing female choice through the development of affiliative relationships with males. Grooming was found to increase between males and females, whilst females displayed sexual receptivity through the presence of anogenital swellings and grooming may be a strategy used by males to increase their access to copulation opportunities, whereas females may use grooming to increase protection from harassment by less preferred males during swollen periods and also increase the likelihood of copulation with preferred partners. Based on the availability of oestrous females, copulations between males and adult females occurred significantly less frequently than expected, whereas copulations between males and subadult females occurred significantly more frequently than expected. Overall a positive correlation was found between grooming of females by males and frequency of copulations. Due to concerns regarding the validity of different sampling methods, scan-focal and ad libitum sampling methods were compared to establish if results from different sampling methods were similar. Results from the scan-focal and ad libitum sampling methods had very few discrepancies, and it is suggested that ad libitum sampling methods which record behaviour types whenever they occur, may be more beneficial for species which don’t move around as a single unit and live in environments where visibility is reduced, therefore increasing the possibility of recording individuals or behaviours that are observed infrequently. Scan-focal sampling may be more beneficial in studying species which move around together in habitats which are conducive to greater visibility, therefore allowing all or most group members to be observed simultaneously. / Thesis (DPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

Das Leben in Gruppen beinhaltet neben vielen Vorteilen auch zahlreiche Nachteile. Gruppenmitglieder konkurrieren über dieselben begrenzten Ressourcen oder verfolgen unterschiedliche Ziele. Während eines Interessenkonfliktes durchläuft jeder Konkurrent einen Entscheidungsprozeß, in dessen Zentrum die Frage steht, ob es sich lohnt für eine bestimmte Ressource zu kämpfen. Dabei muß einbezogen werden, daß aggressive Auseinandersetzungen Kosten verursachen. Diese Kosten können zum einen in Aggressionskosten, z.B. ein erhöhtes Verletzungsrisiko oder hohen Energieverbrauch, und zum anderen in Sozialkosten, z.B. die Störung kooperativer Beziehungen oder Streßreaktionen, aufgeteilt werden. Die unter dem Begriff Konfliktmanagement zusammengefaßten Verhaltensweisen helfen Konfliktkosten zu verringern. So können in Interessenkonflikten Aggression vermieden, deren Stärke gedämpft und soziale Konsequenzen verringert werden. Konfliktmanagement kann vor (pre-conflict management), während (peri-conflict management) und nach (post-conflict management) dem Auftreten von Aggression eingesetzt werden. Die Hypothese, die einem optimalen Konfliktmanagement zu Grunde liegt, ist daß der Nutzen eines Konfliktes seine Kosten übersteigen muß, wobei der Profit (Nutzen – Kosten) aus dem Konflikt maximiert wird. Vereinfachend nenne ich aggressive Auseinandersetzungen von nun an Konflikte. Das Konfliktmanagement von freilebenden Schimpansen (Pan troglodytes verus) wurde im Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire (Westafrika), untersucht. Von 1071 beobachteten Konflikten, die ich während ganztägiger Beobachtungen an 4 männlichen und 11 weiblichen Fokustieren gesammelt habe, wurden 876 zwischen erwachsenen Schimpansen beider Geschlechter analysiert. Multivariate Analysemethoden wurden angewandt, um die entscheidenden Faktoren des Entscheidungsprozesses bei Konflikten aufzuspüren, während überwiegend Paarstatistik für einfaktorielle Analysen verwandt wurde. Dominanzbeziehungen können den Zugang zu Ressourcen regulieren und damit den Ausbruch von Aggression verhindern (pre-conflict management). Frühere Studien haben gezeigt, daß häufig lineare Rangordnungen unter männlichen, nicht aber unter weiblichen Schimpansen bestehen. Die vorliegende Arbeit konnte hingegen eine lineare Rangordnung auch unter den Weibchen der Taï Schimpansen nachweisen, welche auf Grußlauten der untergeordneten Weibchen gerichtet an die Dominanten beruhte (Wittig & Boesch, 2003a). Im Nahrungskontext waren die Taï Weibchen untereinander direkter Konkurrenz (contest competition) ausgesetzt. Dieser Wettstreit wurde intensiver, sobald eine Nahrungsquelle monopolisierbar war oder die Anzahl von Konkurrentinnen anstieg. Der Rang in der Hierarchie unter den Weibchen war abhängig vom Gewinn der Wettstreite aber unabhängig vom Alter. Warum zwischen einigen Weibchen keine Begrüßungen beobachtet wurden, konnte nicht mit dem Fehlen sozio-positiver Beziehungen erklärt werden. Ein Vergleich zwischen Populationen von Schimpansen zeigte Unterschiede in der Nahrungskonkurrenz, dem Raubdruck und der Beobachtungszeit. Diese Faktoren könnten der Grund für die unterschiedlichen Dominanzbeziehungen unter den Weibchen sein. Anschließend untersuchte ich Variablen, die darüber entscheiden, ob und wie intensiv Individuen kämpfen. Dazu erweiterte ich das Relational Model (de Waal, 1996), um die gesamte Dynamik des Entscheidungsprozesses bei Taï Schimpansen beschreiben zu können. Das erweiterte Relational Model basiert auf der Annahme, daß der zu erwartende Profit den Ausbruch von Aggression bestimmt (Wittig & Boesch, 2003b). Schimpansen beider Geschlechter kämpften häufiger um Ressourcen, die von besonderer Bedeutung für sie waren: Nahrung für Weibchen und sozialer Rang für Männchen. Schimpansen benutzten zwei Strategien, die auf ihre Wahrscheinlichkeit diesen Kampf zu gewinnen zurückgeführt wurden. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit einen Kampf zu gewinnen wurde durch die Dominanzbeziehung der Gegner bestimmt. Dominante Angreifer initiierten längere und intensivere Kämpfe, aber bemühten sich Sozialkosten zu begrenzen, indem sie selten Kooperationspartner angriffen. Untergeordnete Angreifer kämpften kürzer und weniger intensiv, riskierten jedoch höhere Sozialkosten, die sie anschließend durch Versöhnungsmechanismen wieder zu verringern versuchten. Beide Strategien resultierten in einem positiven Profit für den Angreifer. Mit dem erweiterten Relational Model kann die gesamte Komplexität von Konflikten zwischen Taï Schimpansen beschrieben werden. Es erlaubt eine größere Flexibilität im Vergleich zur ursprünglichen Version des Models. Das Post-conflict Management sozial lebender Tiere kann dazu eingesetzt werden, Kosten zu reduzieren, die am Ende des Konfliktes bestehen. Dazu werden eine Vielzahl von Verhaltensweisen angewandt, so z.B. Versöhnung (reconciliation), Trost (consolation) oder Weiterleitung von Aggression (redirected aggression). Jede dieser Interaktionen, die erst nach dem Konflikt initiiert werden (PCI = post-conflict interaction), bietet unterschiedliche Vor- und Nachteile, die gelegentlich überlappen. Um den bestmöglichen Vorteil aus einer Konfliktsituation zu ziehen, können Individuen unter verschiedenen PCIs wählen. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersuchte, welche Konfliktsituation bei Taï Schimpansen zu welchen PCIs führten, und überprüfte, ob die Vor- und Nachteilen der ausgewählten PCI mit den Bedürfnissen zur Kostenbegrenzung der Konfliktpartner übereinstimmte (Wittig & Boesch, in press). Ehemalige Gegner versöhnten sich nach Konflikten, wenn ihre Beziehung wertvoll für sie war, und wenn eine Annäherung aneinander nur unwahrscheinlich zu erneuter Aggression geführt hätte. Das Trösten durch Dritte schien manchmal die Versöhnung zu ersetzen. Trost wurde von Dritten angeboten, wenn zwischen ehemaligen Gegnern keine wertvolle Beziehung bestand oder eine Annäherung der Gegner vermutlich wieder zu Aggression geführt hätte. Taï Schimpansen nahmen einen Konflikt wieder auf, wenn die vorherige Auseinandersetzung unentschieden war oder einen unerwarteten Verlierer aufwies. Nach lang anhaltenden Konflikten, oder wenn es wahrscheinlich ausging, daß friedliche PCIs fehlschlagen würden, leiteten Taï Schimpansen die Aggression häufig an Unbeteiligte weiter. Im Gegensatz dazu verhielten sich Taï Schimpansen nach kurzen Konflikten so, weiter als wäre nichts geschehen, und verweigerten jede Art von Interaktion (keine PCI), wenn die betreffende Ressource nicht an Ort oder Zeit gebunden war. Taï Schimpansen schienen Vor- und Nachteile klar gegeneinander abzuwägen, um die geeignetste PCI (Strategie) auszuwählen. Insgesamt scheint Versöhnung die einzige PCI zu sein, mit der es möglich ist, die aggressionsbedingte Störung einer Beziehung zu beseitigen, d.h. eine Beziehung zu reparieren. Obwohl der Nutzen von Versöhnungen allgemein anerkannt ist, war annähernd keine Kenntnis darüber vorhanden, wie ehemalige Gegner eine solche Reparatur durchführen. Frühere Studien gaben Anhaltspunkte über unterschiedliche Längen, Latenzen und Verhaltensweisen von Versöhnungen innerhalb einer Art. Die Gründe für die Variabilität im Versöhnungsverhalten waren jedoch weitgehend unbekannt. Aus diesem Grund untersuchte ich besonders das Versöhnungsverhalten der Taï Schimpansen (Wittig & Boesch, in review). Die Daten bestätigten, daß die Versöhnung eine Beziehung reparieren kann. Aggression störte die Toleranz zwischen den Gegnern, Versöhnung normalisierte diese wieder. Ehemalige Gegner mit wertvollen Beziehungen versöhnten sich häufiger als Partner mit weniger wertvollen Beziehungen. Die Latenz und Dauer der Versöhnung verändern sich in Abhängigkeit voneinander, da kurze Versöhnungen schnell nach einem Konflikt erfolgten. Lange Versöhnungen hingegen dauerten auch lange, bis sie zustande kamen. Hinzu kam, daß Taï Schimpansen eine lange Latenz wählten, wenn ein erneutes Aufflammen der Aggression wahrscheinlich erschien, aber nur kurze Zeit in die Versöhnung investierten, wenn die Zeit anderweitig vorteilhafter genutzt werden konnte. Dahingegen war die Komplexität der Versöhnung abhängig von der Stärke des Konfliktes. Je härter zuvor der Kampf geführt wurde, desto komplexer war di / Besides many advantages, social living also holds several disadvantages. Social partners compete for the same resources or seek contrary goals. When facing such conflicts of interest, competitors go through a decision-making process of whether or not to fight over a resource. However aggressive interactions, which I will refer to here as conflicts, incur costs, which can be separated into costs of aggression (increased risk of injury, higher energy usage) and social costs. Social costs are created by the consequences for the social life, such as the disturbance of cooperative relationships or stress. Conflict management should diminish the costs of conflicts by avoiding escalation to aggression, regulating the intensity of the escalation or dealing with the social consequences (e.g. relationship disturbance or social stress) of the conflict. Thus conflict management can be used before (pre-conflict management), during (peri-conflict management) and after the conflict (post-conflict management). The underlying hypothesis for optimal conflict management is that the benefits prevail over the costs, meanwhile the net-benefit is maximised. I investigated the conflict management of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in the Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa. Of the 1071 conflicts observed during full-day focal animal follows of adults (4 males, 11 females), I analysed 876 dyadic conflicts among adult chimpanzees of both sex. Multivariate analysis was carried out to detect the variables that influence the decision-making process, while dyadic statistics were usually conducted for mono-factorial testing. Dominance relationships can regulate access to resources and thus help to avoid aggression (pre-conflict management). Although linear hierarchies are commonly found among male chimpanzees, they are believed to be absent among females. However, I detected a formal linear dominance hierarchy among the Taï females based on greeting behaviour directed from the subordinate to the dominant female. Females faced contest competition over food, which increased when either the food was monopolisable or the number of competitors increased. Dominant females usually possessed the food after the conflict. Winning contests over food, but not age, was related to the dominance rank. Affiliative relationships among the females did not help to explain the absence of greetings in some dyads. However post hoc comparison among chimpanzee populations made differences in food competition, predation risk and observation time apparent, which may explain the difference in dominance relationships. I also examined the decision-making process of whether or not to initiate aggression and how strong to fight. An extended version of the Relational Model (de Waal, 1996a) was developed to describe the dynamics of the decision-making process in Taï chimpanzees, such that the net-benefit determines the occurrence of conflicts. Both sexes fought more frequently for the resources that were most important to them: food for females and social contexts for males. Individuals used two different strategies according to their likelihood of winning the aggressive interaction, which was determined by the dominance relationship of the conflict partners. Dominant initiators had longer and more intense aggressive interactions, but they limited their social disadvantages by fighting non-cooperative partners. Subordinate initiators had shorter and less intense aggressive interactions, but risked more social costs, which they could reduce afterwards by reconciliation. Both strategies included a positive overall net-benefit. The extended Relational Model fits the complexity of wild chimpanzee conflicts and allows for more flexibility in the decision-making process compared to the original model. Post-conflict management in social living animals can reduce costs that remain after aggressive interactions by means of a variety of interactions implemented after aggression (e.g. reconciliation, consolation, redirected aggression). Each post-conflict interaction (PCI) provides different advantages and disadvantages, although the functions may sometimes overlap. Individuals can therefore choose a PCI to achieve the most favourable outcome within a given conflict situation. I investigated which conflict-condition led to which type of PCI and related the choice of PCI to its advantages and disadvantages. Taï chimpanzees used reconciliation to resolve conflicts among high value partners and when approaching the former opponent was unlikely to entail further aggression. Consolation seemed to substitute for reconciliation, when opponents were low value partners or approaching the former opponent was too risky, such as when further aggression was likely. Taï chimpanzees renewed aggression after undecided conflicts and when losers were unexpected. They used redirected aggression after long conflicts, possibly because friendly PCIs were likely to fail. However, Taï chimpanzees continued with business as usual when conflicts were very short, and they avoided further interactions when the accessibility of the resource was unlimited. Taï chimpanzees appeared to follow a clear-cut evaluation process as they seemed to weigh advantages against disadvantages for the appropriate choice of PCI. However reconciliation appears to be the only PCI that is able to repair the relationships of former opponents after being disturbed by aggressive interactions. Despite a consensus about the benefits of reconciliation, it remains unclear how former opponents achieve these benefits. Variation within reconciliation is evident in many species, but understanding what causes the variation has been mostly neglected until now. Therefore I investigated how Taï chimpanzees reconciled. This study provides evidence for the repair function of reconciliation, since aggression disturbed tolerance levels among former opponents and reconciliation restored tolerance to normal levels again. Partners with highly beneficial relationships reconciled more often compared with partners of low mutual benefit. Latency and duration of reconciliation varied in combination, such that short reconciliations were initiated soon after the conflict, while long reconciliations were initiated later. Latency increased with the risk of further aggression, while duration decreased when costs were incurred from interruption of beneficial activities. In contrast, the complexity of reconciliation varied according to the intensity of the preceding conflict, such that reconciliation was more complex after more intense conflicts. My results suggest that relationships between opponents are increasingly disturbed with increasing conflict intensity and reconciliation repairs all relationships independent of their relationship value. I propose that the function of reconciliation is to reduce the disturbance created by aggression, but that reconciliation occurs more frequently the more beneficial it is for former opponents. Taï chimpanzees engaged in conflict management before, during and after the conflict. The decision-making process of Taï chimpanzees is based on economic rules in terms of costs and benefits. Conflict management provides Taï chimpanzees with a tool to minimise the disadvantages of group-living.