<p> </p> <p>This dissertation consists of three essays that examine the response of small businesses to disruptions in their environment. The first two essays focused on small non-farm businesses in the United States and how they deal with natural disasters. The last essay examined smallholder farm households in Malawi, and how their household labor allocation decisions are affected by land allocation to estates in their communities. The individual essays are summarized as follows:</p> <p>Essay 1: <em>A Conditional Process Approach to Understanding the Role of Adjustment Strategies and Disaster Experience in Racial Disparities in Small Business Performance. </em>Considering that most minority owned businesses have limited access to formal systems, this essay explored how race could indirectly affect business performance (measured as percentage revenue growth) through the adoption of three informal strategies: customer base expansion, supplier base expansion and family adjustment strategies. It also explored whether these indirect effects are moderated by experience with natural disaster. The results showed that being a racial minority was positively associated with revenue growth such that on average, minority business owners experienced 29% higher revenue growth than white-owned businesses (p<0.05) on business performance. It also showed a modest indirect effect of race on revenue growth through each mediating strategy (p<0.5). However, the results did not support a moderating role for disaster experience. </p> <p>Essay 2: <em>Willingness to Pay for Comprehensive Cyclone Insurance Coverage by Small Business Owners: Evidence from the Coastal States of the United States</em>. Small businesses in the coastal United States are usually uninsured or underinsured for cyclone events. The underinsuring of these businesses could be a result of limited insurance coverage as well as individual characteristics of small business owners. Using a discrete choice experiment, this essay used a hypothetical comprehensive cyclone insurance to understand what insurance attributes are important to small business owners. It also examined the role of previous disaster experience, charity hazard as well as temporal orientation on the willingness to pay for the disaster insurance. This study used a discrete choice experiment to elicit insurance preferences from small coastal businesses which employed less than 100 employees. A mixed logit model was used to analyze the data. The results showed that business owners exhibited positive marginal utilities from policies that covered flood, windstorm, and business interruption regardless of the combination. Notably, the mixed logit model showed that on average, business owners were willing to pay up to 450%, 472%, and 482% more than their total monthly business insurance premium payment for insurance that covers flood and business interruption, windstorm and business interruption, and flood, windstorm and business interruption respectively. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression showed that respondents who had previously experienced cyclones were more willing to pay for the presented insurance policies than those who have not. Future orientation was also found to be positively associated with the marginal willingness to pay for the insurance policies.</p> <p>Essay 3: <em>Estates and Small-Holder Agricultural Labor Dynamics in Sub-Saharan Africa:</em> <em>A Case Study of Malawi. </em>Estates are larger than the average farm holdings, which mostly grow one crop, require large capital investment, are centrally managed and rely a lot on hired labor. With such large investments in agricultural land, the labor decisions of smallholder households in Africa will likely be altered. This essay therefore examined the role of estate farms on smallholders’ allocation of labor between on-farm, and off-farm demand and supply of casual labor using the <em>ganyu</em> system of Malawi as a case-study. Using the Malawi Integrated Household Panel survey covering the years 2010, 2013, 2016, and 2019, we estimated the effect of estates on the participation of smallholders on these labor decisions as well as the number of days spent in each activity. We also investigated the effect of these estates on community agricultural labor (<em>ganyu) </em>wage rates and the share of income accruable to ganyu and crop production. Linear probability (LPM), as well as tobit-correlated random effects (CRE) regressions were used to test these effects. Both models showed that the share of estates had a negative correlation with <em>ganyu </em>demand. The Tobit CRE regression showed that on average a 1% increase in the percentage share of agricultural land occupied by estates was associated with a modest 0.04% (p<0.01) decrease in the number of days <em>ganyu </em>labor was demanded, and a 0.02% increase in the number of days household members spent on their own farms. Further results showed that households in communities with higher shares of estates participated in less non-crop farming activities especially wage employment. We also found that the negative relationship between estates and <em>ganyu </em>demand was accentuated among households with higher levels of assets, and farm income. Finally, we found a modest negative relationship between share of estates and community <em>ganyu </em>wage rates </p>

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With shipping routes, fisheries, conservation areas, recreation, and other maritime industries competing for space off Virginia's coastline, integrated solutions for marine areas may offer a way to limit conflict and maximize productivity. Countries across the world are researching the different ways in which the space between turbines can be utilized to provide economic and environmental benefits. The act of coupling other maritime activities with offshore wind farms is often referred to as co-location. As Virginia constructs the first offshore wind farm in United States Federal waters, there are new opportunities for co-location that could benefit the Virginia economy. Using data from a choice experiment and random utility modeling, this research quantifies Virginia public preferences for various co-location options within the lease area of the Coastal Virginia Offshore Wind (CVOW) farm. Our estimated WTP values show Virginia's public preference for the addition of co-location to the CVOW lease area to be upwards of $20 per 1,000 acres of activity. Our estimates can be compared to implementation and management costs of each activity to determine potential for incorporation of certain co-location techniques. The experimental design of this study can be applied to other offshore wind installments around the world. / Master of Science / With shipping routes, fisheries, conservation areas, recreation, and other maritime industries competing for space off Virginia's coastline, integrated solutions for marine areas may offer a way to limit conflict and maximize productivity. Countries across the world are researching the different ways in which the space between turbines can be utilized to provide economic and environmental benefits. The act of coupling other maritime activities with offshore wind farms is often referred to as co-location. As Virginia constructs the first offshore wind farm in United States federal waters, there are new opportunities for co-location that could benefit the Virginia economy. Using a Stated Preference Choice Experiment and economic valuation methods, this research quantifies Virginia's public preferences for various co-location options within the lease area of the Coastal Virginia Offshore Wind (CVOW) farm, such as: a seaweed aquaculture farm, a seaweed forest, and a research area. Our estimated WTP values show Virginia's public preference for the addition of co-location to the CVOW lease area to be upwards of $20 per 1,000 acres of activity. Our estimates can be compared to implementation and management costs of each activity to determine potential for incorporation of certain co-location techniques. The experimental design of this study can be applied to other offshore wind installments around the world.

This study examines small and medium scale specialty crop growers’ preferences for marketing contract attributes and willingness to adopt blockchain-based smart contracts. The data used were collected using an online survey and discrete choice experiment. Findings indicate that farmers prefer higher average prices, cash, check or electronic bank payment over cryptocurrency, and immediate payment upon product delivery over delayed payment. When choosing a contract, farmers viewed traditional text-based contracts and digital platforms with automated smart contracts equivalently, on average. On average, farmers showed no preference for providing and not providing traceability lot codes to buyers, and between choosing a contract and marketing their products as usual. Although we find that some farmers prefer to provide traceability lot codes to buyers while others do not, and some farmers prefer having a contract option while others do not. These insights could be useful to buyers and specialty crop farmers seeking to contract.

Marine omega-3s, EPA and DHA, have been strongly evidenced to decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death in the United States. One of the richest sources of EPA and DHA in the U.S. diet is farmed Atlantic salmon, which has shown a steady consumption growth in the past decade. The U.S. shows the most production potential for salmon produced with an emerging production method, recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), which directly addresses the environmental challenges associated with the traditional farming method, open-net pens. Because of the higher costs associated with RAS, the salmon it produces requires a price premium, and little is known about whether U.S. consumers are willing to pay such a premium. We conduct a hypothetical choice experiment across all major regional markets of the U.S. (n = 2857) to estimate consumers' willingness-to-pay for RAS and other attributes valued by producers and consumers. Our results show that U.S. consumers are willing to pay a premium for RAS, but only after prioritizing freshness (fewer days since harvest) and U.S. production, all of which were significant to the p < .001 level. Higher omega-3 content also justified a significant premium, but byproduct recycling and stocking density did not have any real influence on purchases. We express these willingness-to-pay (WTP) estimates as percentages of a reference product priced with model estimates. These adjusted retail premiums should be paired with RAS salmon production costs to understand the economic viability of RAS and illuminate the path to EPA and DHA nutrient security in the U.S. / Master of Science / Two micronutrients found in cold-water fish, EPA and DHA, have been strongly evidenced to decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death in the United States. One of the richest sources of EPA and DHA in the U.S. diet is farmed Atlantic salmon, which has shown a steady consumption growth in the past decade. The U.S. shows the most production potential for salmon produced with an emerging production method, recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), which directly addresses the environmental challenges associated with the traditional farming method, open-net pens. Because of the higher costs associated with RAS, the salmon it produces requires a price premium, and little is known about whether U.S. consumers are willing to pay such a premium. We conducted an experiment with U.S. consumers (n = 2857) to estimate willingness-to-pay for RAS and other attributes valued by producers and consumers. Our results show that U.S. consumers are willing to pay a premium for RAS, but only after prioritizing freshness (fewer days since harvest) and U.S. production. Higher omega-3 content also justified a significant premium, but byproduct recycling and stocking density did not have any real influence on purchase

The thesis explores whether Swedish consumers value outerwear sold with an included repair service with the motive of supporting the transition towards a more sustainable fashion industry. In addition, to foster sustainable consumption and production patterns which align with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. This study is further associated with the EU Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation and the upcoming EU regulation concerning the Extended Producer Responsibility. A mixed-method approach is used for the methodological framework. Qualitative semi-structured interviews are used as a pre-study to explore attributes and levels for the main quantitative Discrete Choice Experiment survey study. The Discrete Choice Experiment method integrates with the theoretical framework through the application of the Willingness to Pay estimates. A convenient sampling method, in combination with a snowball sampling method, is applied. The findings from the survey show implications for educated young urban women, a group with significant environmental impacts due to their clothing consumption. The 129 respondents showed a stated Willingness to Pay of an additional 35.6% or 562.30 SEK for outerwear with an included repair service. The calculations are based on the average price 1579.60 SEK the respondents in the survey pay for outerwear. The findings show that longer waiting times decrease the amount of money the respondents want to pay for the service. The stated Willingness to Pay decreases to 31.1% or 491.30 SEK with one week of waiting time. The creation of new jobs and a reduction of environmental impacts in production increase the stated Willingness to Pay. The findings show that outerwear sold with an included repair service could increase the frequency of repairs, extend the user phase of outerwear, and reduce the consumption of new outerwear.

While previous studies have investigated country-of-origin effect from various angles, it remained unexplored the extent to which Country of Origin Labeling (COOL) affects U.S. beef imports from specific countries. Using choice-experiment data, willingness to pay (WTP) for Australian, Canadian beef in addition to other enhancement attributes were estimated with a Mixed Logit Model and a Latent Class Model. The results revealed unobserved taste heterogeneity and important differences in the WTP between the imported and domestic steak. The Latent Class Model estimated the range of discount needed for consumers to switch from U.S. to Canadian steak was a range from $1.09 to $35.12 per pound. Results from the Mixed Logit Model reiterated strong domestic preference. Significant positive WTP for BSE-tested, traceable, and tenderness-assured beef were also observed. In addition, perceived risk theory was utilized to explain the difference in WTP for domestic and imported beef. The psychometric method proposed in Pennings et al. (2002) were adopted, which disentangled perceived risk into risk perception and risk attitude. Using a mixed logit model with error component specification, the result revealed a strong link between risk perception and risk attitude towards consumer choice of country-of-origin labeled beef. Specifically, we found that perceived risk factors have a stronger impact on imported beef than domestic beef, which could partially explain consumers’ aversion towards imported beef. Lastly, the perceived risk framework was expanded to explain variation in the WTP for traceable and BSE-tested beef. The results indicated significant and non-linear impact from risk attitude and risk perception to WTP for the attributes. In addition, BSE-concern, and perceived level of control agribusiness has on food safety significantly influenced WTP for traceable and BSE-tested beef.

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Background: Increased pressure, rising demand and cost constraints have driven a need for radical service re-design in the NHS. To deliver re-design objectives it is necessary to understand how they are perceived by service users and providers. Aim: To investigate the views of patients and health care professionals (HCP) on aspects of health policy and service re-design affecting primary care. Setting: Patients and HCPs from one geographical area in England. Method: Themes from phase one qualitative interviews were explored quantitatively using a questionnaire in phase two and a discrete choice experiment (DCE) in phase three. Factor analysis was used to explore HCP responses in phase two. In phase three the DCE was administered to explore patients‟ relative priorities of a range of attributes. Results: HCPs had concerns that the Quality Outcomes Framework (QOF) detracted from the patient‟s agenda and did not improve health outcomes. GPs felt continuity of care was important Monday through Friday but were not keen on its provision out of hours. Neither did they feel nurses could run chronic disease management clinics without a GP present. Patients felt continuity could be provided by different HCPs for different conditionsPatients stated continuity of care and consultation duration were the most important attributes in a primary care service. However, in the DCE they prioritised both being seen on the day and by a GP over longer appointments. Patient preference to be seen by a GP may reflect the low uptake of non-medical prescribing in the area. Conclusion: Continuity of care, while remarked as being important to both HCPs and patients, appears less important when weighted against other primary care service attributes. HCPs appear to want longer consultations whereas patients saw time as encompassing both the time to wait for an appointment and consultation length. For patients, the quality of the time with a HCP may be more important than its duration, additionally patients appear to want choice but not necessarily to choose.

Coastlines are particularly susceptible to the necessary trade-offs which occur between different ecosystem services. Should the areas be managed for biodiversity or for people? Where sandy beaches are found there is usually a management decision to be made between managing for recreation or for biodiversity. Many popular tourist beaches (particularly those with a Beach Award) are often groomed with mechanical equipment to remove any stranded seaweed and associated litter which can get entangled in the wrack. This is likely to be having a negative impact on coastal biodiversity, with wide ranging implications for the entire habitat, including the intertidal zone, sand dunes and shorebirds. Beached wrack should be allowed to naturally decompose providing a habitat for numerous species of macro-invertebrates. These macro-invertebrate communities not only include many endemic species found exclusively along the strandline but they also provide a very rich source of food for shorebirds. The re-mineralised nutrients resulting from the decomposed macrophytes should then become available to provide a rich source of nutrients to dune, strandline and marine ecosystems populations of the strandline. In previous studies grooming has been shown to have a negative impact on the invertebrates of the strandline and this study reveals that tidal range has an effect on the impacts of grooming with a higher tidal range having a more negative impact on the invertebrates. A study to observe the impacts of grooming on both adult plant and seed bank communities of the sand dunes found that grooming is having a negative impact on these populations. Grooming is predominantly driven by beach managers who aspire to gain Beach Awards in order to attract tourists to their beaches. Using non-market valuation in the form of a stated preference choice experiment and a travel cost model, it was observed that Beach Awards are not valued by beach goers but are instead influenced to visit a particular beach by good bathing water quality, high levels of biodiversity and low levels of litter. It was also shown that stranded seaweed on the beach does not deter visitors. Future management suggestions include attempting to reduce the confusion arising from the presence of multiple beach awards by either removing them altogether or by making their criteria more clear and direct with consistency in their design and designation. Bathing water quality should be completely removed from the Beach Award system and real-time information in the form of electronic signage and a publicly available App should replace it.