A criptococose é uma infecção fúngica sistêmica, predominantemente oportunista, causada por leveduras encapsuladas do gênero Cryptococcus. As infecções por Cryptococcus neoformans são comuns em nível mundial, e as formas graves são observadas nos pacientes imunocomprometidos. A principal fonte de infecção da criptococose são fezes de pássaros (principalmente pombos) contaminadas com o fungo, sendo a inalação de basidiósporos a principal via de infecção. O estabelecimento e a propagação da infecção são altamente dependentes da imunidade do hospedeiro, sendo o sistema imune celular o mecanismo primário de defesa do organismo contra C. neoformans. Nos últimos anos têm-se descrito outros elementos como ativadores e moduladores da resposta imune, destacando o sistema purinérgico e o sistema colinérgico. Desta maneira, este estudo buscou avaliar a influência da criptococose experimental sobre a atividade do sistema purinérgico e colinérgico, através de três objetivos: (1) avaliar a atividade da ecto-difosfoidrolases (E-NTPDase) e ecto-adenosina deaminase (E-ADA) em linfócitos e soro; (2) atividade da acetilcolinesterase (AChE) no cérebro e linfócitos, e butirilcolinesterase (BChE) no soro; e (3) avaliar os níveis de purinas no soro. Os resultados da avaliação do sistema purinérgico demonstraram que a hidrólise do trifosfato de adenosina (ATP) e difosfato de adenosina (ADP) foram diminuídas, bem como a atividade da E-ADA também esteva diminuída. Em relação a dosagem das colinesterases, observou-se um aumento na atividade da AChE nos linfócitos e no cérebro, e diminuição da BChE. Na dosagem do nível de purinas no soro, verificou-se um aumento nos níveis de ATP e adenosina (ADO) no dia 20 pós-infecção (PI), aumento de ATP e diminuição da ADO, inosina e ácido úrico no dia 50 PI. A avaliação da atividade da E-NTPDase e E-ADA levou a conclusão de que seus comportamentos hidrolíticos seriam compensatórios enquanto a E-NTPDase teria uma ação pró-inflamatória a E-ADA teria uma ação anti-inflamatória, gerando mecanismo de proteção contra danos teciduais secundários, possivelmente gerados respostas exacerbadas à infecção por C. neoformans. Adicionalmente, os dados da atividade da AChE, em amostras correspondentes, comprovaram o estabelecimento de uma resposta pró-inflamatória, corroborando com a hipótese da necessidade de um mecanismo de modulação. Por fim, observou-se um aumento nos níveis extracelulares de ATP caracterizando uma resposta pró-inflamatória. Desta forma, foi possível observar que existe uma participação direta dos sistemas purinérgico e colinérgico na imunomodulação da criptococose experimental, contribuindo para a instalação de uma resposta imune celular adequada para combater a proliferação da levedura, e um mecanismo de redução de danos teciduais associados à resposta imune exacerbada. / Cryptococcosis is a systemic fungal infection predominantly opportunistic, caused by encapsulated yeast from Cryptococcus genus. Cryptococcus neoformans infections are common worldwide, and the severe forms are observed in immunocompromised patients. The main source of cryptococcosis infection are bird droppings (especially pigeons) contaminated with the fungus, and the inhalation of basidiospore is the main route of infection. The establishment and spread of infection are highly dependent of the host immunity, and the cellular immune system is the primary mechanism for defense against C. neoformans. In recent years it has been described other elements as activators and modulators of the immune response, highlighting the purinergic and the cholinergic system. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the influence of experimental cryptococcosis on the activity of purinergic and cholinergic systems through three objectives: (1) to evaluate the activity of the ecto-diphosphohydrolases (E-NTPDase) and ecto-adenosine deaminase (E-ADA ) in lymphocytes and serum; (2) the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in the brain and lymphocytes, and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in serum; and (3) evaluate the serum levels of purines. The results of the evaluation in the purinergic system demonstrated that the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) was decreased as well as the E-ADA activity. For the dosage of the cholinesterase, there was an increase in AChE activity in lymphocytes and in the brain, and a decreased in BChE. The measurement of serum purine level demonstrate an increase in the levels of ATP and adenosine) on day 20 post-infection (PI), an increased in ATP and decreased in ADO, inosine and uric acid on day 50 PI. The assessment of the E-NTPDase and E-ADA activity led the conclusion that their hydrolytic behavior would be compensatory while the E-NTPDase would have a pro-inflammatory action, E-ADA would have an anti-inflammatory action, generating protective mechanism against secondary damage tissue, producing possibly exacerbated responses to C. neoformans infection. In addition, data of AChE activity in corresponding samples confirmed the establishment of a pro-inflammatory response, corroborating the hypothesis of the need for a modulation mechanism. Finally, there was an increase in extracellular levels of ATP featuring a pro-inflammatory response. In this way, it was observed a direct involvement of the purinergic and cholinergic systems in immunomodulation of experimental cryptococcosis, contributing to the installation of an immune cell response suitable to combat the proliferation of yeast, and a reduction mechanism of tissue damage associated with response immune exacerbated.

<p>This thesis examined neurotoxic effects of nicotine exposure during a defined critical period of neonatal brain development in mice.</p><p>In our environment there are numerous hazardous contaminants that an individual can be exposed to during its entire lifetime. In many mammalian species the neonatal period is characterised by a rapid development of the brain. The present studies have identified a defined critical period during the neonatal brain development in mice, where exposure to low doses of nicotine causes permanent disturbances in the cholinergic nicotinic receptors and altered behaviour response to nicotine at adult age. This adult reaction to nicotine, a hypoactive response, was the opposite of that observed in control animals and animals exposed to nicotine before or after this period. Animals showing a hypoactive response to nicotine lacked nicotinic low affinity binding sites in the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, neonatal exposure to nicotine affected learning and memory in adult animals, an effect that was time-dependent. This thesis also showed that neonatal exposure to nicotine increased adult susceptibility to a repeated exposure of nicotine, manifested as an even more pronounced effect in spontaneous behaviour after challenging doses of nicotine. In these animals the nicotinic receptors in the cerebral cortex, assayed by a-bungarotoxin, was decreased. </p><p>Neonatal exposure to nicotine was also shown to increase adult susceptibility to the organophosphate paraoxon, a known cholinergic agent, and to the brominated flame retardant 2,2´,4,4´,5-pentabromodiphenyl ether, a novel environmental agent, at adult age. This was seen at doses that did not affect behaviour in control animals, and was manifested as deranged spontaneous behaviour and reduced habituation, aberrations that also worsened with age. </p><p>The results indicate that differences in adult susceptibility to environmental pollutants are not necessarily an inherited condition. Rather they may well be acquired by low dose exposure to toxic agents during early life.</p>

This thesis examined neurotoxic effects of nicotine exposure during a defined critical period of neonatal brain development in mice. In our environment there are numerous hazardous contaminants that an individual can be exposed to during its entire lifetime. In many mammalian species the neonatal period is characterised by a rapid development of the brain. The present studies have identified a defined critical period during the neonatal brain development in mice, where exposure to low doses of nicotine causes permanent disturbances in the cholinergic nicotinic receptors and altered behaviour response to nicotine at adult age. This adult reaction to nicotine, a hypoactive response, was the opposite of that observed in control animals and animals exposed to nicotine before or after this period. Animals showing a hypoactive response to nicotine lacked nicotinic low affinity binding sites in the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, neonatal exposure to nicotine affected learning and memory in adult animals, an effect that was time-dependent. This thesis also showed that neonatal exposure to nicotine increased adult susceptibility to a repeated exposure of nicotine, manifested as an even more pronounced effect in spontaneous behaviour after challenging doses of nicotine. In these animals the nicotinic receptors in the cerebral cortex, assayed by a-bungarotoxin, was decreased. Neonatal exposure to nicotine was also shown to increase adult susceptibility to the organophosphate paraoxon, a known cholinergic agent, and to the brominated flame retardant 2,2´,4,4´,5-pentabromodiphenyl ether, a novel environmental agent, at adult age. This was seen at doses that did not affect behaviour in control animals, and was manifested as deranged spontaneous behaviour and reduced habituation, aberrations that also worsened with age. The results indicate that differences in adult susceptibility to environmental pollutants are not necessarily an inherited condition. Rather they may well be acquired by low dose exposure to toxic agents during early life.

This thesis investigates the neurotoxic effects in mice neonatally co-exposed to different toxic environmental agents during a defined critical period of the brains's rapid growth and development. Environmental toxic agents are incorporated in our environment. The agents investigated in this thesis are ortho-substituted polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs 52, and 153), co-planar PCB (PCB 126), polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE 99), methyl mercury (MeHg), and γ-radiation. Several epidemiological studies show that human exposure to environmental agents during early development can affect childhood cognitive development. The brain growth spurt (BGS) is defined by rapid growth and development of the immature brain. For rodents (rats and mice) the BGS is postnatal spanning the first 3-4 weeks after birth. For humans this period begins during the third trimester of pregnancy and continues throughout the first two years of life. Several studies have shown that the BGS period of the brain's development renders the brain vunerable and susceptible to insults caused by environmental agents. The combinations of environmental agents used in this thesis were: PCB 52 + PBDE 99, PCB 153 + MeHg, PCB 126 + MeHg, PBDE 99 + MeHg, and γ-radiation + MeHg. The studies presented in this thesis show that co-exposure to low doses of environmental agents lead to interaction effects. These effects of interaction include defective spontaneous behavior, diminished habituation capabilities and hyperactive condition, decreased learning and memory abilities, and reduction in the nicotinic cholinergic receptor densities. Traditionally environmental agents are evaluated one at a time to investigate their effects of toxicity. This thesis indicates that the effects of interaction caused by co-exposure were often seen at doses where exposure to the individual environmental agent alone did not cause any effect. The observed effect of co-exposure were often as pronounced as a dose up to ten times the individual environmental agent alone.

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic relapsing inflammatory bowel disease. Neuropeptides, especially vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and substance P (SP), have long been considered to play key roles in UC. Among other effects, these neuropeptides have trophic and growth-modulating as well as wound-healing effects. Furthermore, whilst VIP has anti-inflammatory properties, SP has pro-inflammatory effects. It is generally assumed that the main source of SP and VIP in the intestine is the tissue innervation. It is not known whether or not they are produced in the epithelial layer. The details concerning the expressions of their receptors in UC are also, to a great extent, unclear. Apart from the occurrence of peptidergic systems in the intestine, there are also neuronal as well as non-neuronal cholinergic systems. The pattern concerning the latter is unknown with respect to UC. The studies in this thesis aimed to investigate the expression of SP and VIP and their major receptors (NK-1R and VPAC1) in UC colon, compared to non-UC colon. The main emphasis was devoted to the epithelium. A second aim was to examine for levels of these neuropeptides in blood plasma in UC. Another aim was to examine for the non-neuronal cholinergic system in UC, thus, to investigate whether there is acetylcholine production outside nerves in the UC colon. Methods used in the thesis were immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization, enzyme immunosorbent assay, and in vitro receptor autoradiography. For the first time, mRNA for VIP and SP has here been found in the colonic epithelium. That was especially noted in UC mucosa showing a rather normal morphology, and in non-UC mucosa. Marked derangement of the mucosa was found to lead to a distinct decrease in VIP binding, and also a decrease in the expression level of VIP receptor VPAC1 in the epithelium. In general, there was an upregulation of the SP receptor NK-1R in the epithelium when the mucosa was deranged. The plasma levels of SP and VIP were higher for UC patients compared to healthy controls. There were marked correlations between the levels of the peptides in plasma, their levels in the mucosa and the degree of mucosal derangement/inflammation. A pronounced nonneuronal cholinergic system was found in both UC and non-UC colon. Certain changes occurred in this system in response to inflammation/derangement in UC. The present study shows unexpectedly that expressions for VIP and SP are not only related to the nerve structures and the inflammatory cells. The downregulation of VPAC1 expression, and the tendencies of upregulation of NK-1R expression levels when there is marked tissue derangement, may be a drawback for the intestinal function. The study also shows that there is a marked release of neuropeptides to the bloodstream in parallel with a marked derangement of the mucosa in UC. The cholinergic effects in the UC colon appear not only to be associated with nerverelated effects, but also effects of acetylcholine produced in local non-neuronal cells. The thesis shows that local productions for not only acetylcholine, but also SP and VIP, occur to a larger extent than previously considered.

A criptococose é uma infecção fúngica sistêmica, predominantemente oportunista, causada por leveduras encapsuladas do gênero Cryptococcus. As infecções por Cryptococcus neoformans são comuns em nível mundial, e as formas graves são observadas nos pacientes imunocomprometidos. A principal fonte de infecção da criptococose são fezes de pássaros (principalmente pombos) contaminadas com o fungo, sendo a inalação de basidiósporos a principal via de infecção. O estabelecimento e a propagação da infecção são altamente dependentes da imunidade do hospedeiro, sendo o sistema imune celular o mecanismo primário de defesa do organismo contra C. neoformans. Nos últimos anos têm-se descrito outros elementos como ativadores e moduladores da resposta imune, destacando o sistema purinérgico e o sistema colinérgico. Desta maneira, este estudo buscou avaliar a influência da criptococose experimental sobre a atividade do sistema purinérgico e colinérgico, através de três objetivos: (1) avaliar a atividade da ecto-difosfoidrolases (E-NTPDase) e ecto-adenosina deaminase (E-ADA) em linfócitos e soro; (2) atividade da acetilcolinesterase (AChE) no cérebro e linfócitos, e butirilcolinesterase (BChE) no soro; e (3) avaliar os níveis de purinas no soro. Os resultados da avaliação do sistema purinérgico demonstraram que a hidrólise do trifosfato de adenosina (ATP) e difosfato de adenosina (ADP) foram diminuídas, bem como a atividade da E-ADA também esteva diminuída. Em relação a dosagem das colinesterases, observou-se um aumento na atividade da AChE nos linfócitos e no cérebro, e diminuição da BChE. Na dosagem do nível de purinas no soro, verificou-se um aumento nos níveis de ATP e adenosina (ADO) no dia 20 pós-infecção (PI), aumento de ATP e diminuição da ADO, inosina e ácido úrico no dia 50 PI. A avaliação da atividade da E-NTPDase e E-ADA levou a conclusão de que seus comportamentos hidrolíticos seriam compensatórios enquanto a E-NTPDase teria uma ação pró-inflamatória a E-ADA teria uma ação anti-inflamatória, gerando mecanismo de proteção contra danos teciduais secundários, possivelmente gerados respostas exacerbadas à infecção por C. neoformans. Adicionalmente, os dados da atividade da AChE, em amostras correspondentes, comprovaram o estabelecimento de uma resposta pró-inflamatória, corroborando com a hipótese da necessidade de um mecanismo de modulação. Por fim, observou-se um aumento nos níveis extracelulares de ATP caracterizando uma resposta pró-inflamatória. Desta forma, foi possível observar que existe uma participação direta dos sistemas purinérgico e colinérgico na imunomodulação da criptococose experimental, contribuindo para a instalação de uma resposta imune celular adequada para combater a proliferação da levedura, e um mecanismo de redução de danos teciduais associados à resposta imune exacerbada. / Cryptococcosis is a systemic fungal infection predominantly opportunistic, caused by encapsulated yeast from Cryptococcus genus. Cryptococcus neoformans infections are common worldwide, and the severe forms are observed in immunocompromised patients. The main source of cryptococcosis infection are bird droppings (especially pigeons) contaminated with the fungus, and the inhalation of basidiospore is the main route of infection. The establishment and spread of infection are highly dependent of the host immunity, and the cellular immune system is the primary mechanism for defense against C. neoformans. In recent years it has been described other elements as activators and modulators of the immune response, highlighting the purinergic and the cholinergic system. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the influence of experimental cryptococcosis on the activity of purinergic and cholinergic systems through three objectives: (1) to evaluate the activity of the ecto-diphosphohydrolases (E-NTPDase) and ecto-adenosine deaminase (E-ADA ) in lymphocytes and serum; (2) the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in the brain and lymphocytes, and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in serum; and (3) evaluate the serum levels of purines. The results of the evaluation in the purinergic system demonstrated that the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) was decreased as well as the E-ADA activity. For the dosage of the cholinesterase, there was an increase in AChE activity in lymphocytes and in the brain, and a decreased in BChE. The measurement of serum purine level demonstrate an increase in the levels of ATP and adenosine) on day 20 post-infection (PI), an increased in ATP and decreased in ADO, inosine and uric acid on day 50 PI. The assessment of the E-NTPDase and E-ADA activity led the conclusion that their hydrolytic behavior would be compensatory while the E-NTPDase would have a pro-inflammatory action, E-ADA would have an anti-inflammatory action, generating protective mechanism against secondary damage tissue, producing possibly exacerbated responses to C. neoformans infection. In addition, data of AChE activity in corresponding samples confirmed the establishment of a pro-inflammatory response, corroborating the hypothesis of the need for a modulation mechanism. Finally, there was an increase in extracellular levels of ATP featuring a pro-inflammatory response. In this way, it was observed a direct involvement of the purinergic and cholinergic systems in immunomodulation of experimental cryptococcosis, contributing to the installation of an immune cell response suitable to combat the proliferation of yeast, and a reduction mechanism of tissue damage associated with response immune exacerbated.

A criptococose é uma infecção fúngica sistêmica, predominantemente oportunista, causada por leveduras encapsuladas do gênero Cryptococcus. As infecções por Cryptococcus neoformans são comuns em nível mundial, e as formas graves são observadas nos pacientes imunocomprometidos. A principal fonte de infecção da criptococose são fezes de pássaros (principalmente pombos) contaminadas com o fungo, sendo a inalação de basidiósporos a principal via de infecção. O estabelecimento e a propagação da infecção são altamente dependentes da imunidade do hospedeiro, sendo o sistema imune celular o mecanismo primário de defesa do organismo contra C. neoformans. Nos últimos anos têm-se descrito outros elementos como ativadores e moduladores da resposta imune, destacando o sistema purinérgico e o sistema colinérgico. Desta maneira, este estudo buscou avaliar a influência da criptococose experimental sobre a atividade do sistema purinérgico e colinérgico, através de três objetivos: (1) avaliar a atividade da ecto-difosfoidrolases (E-NTPDase) e ecto-adenosina deaminase (E-ADA) em linfócitos e soro; (2) atividade da acetilcolinesterase (AChE) no cérebro e linfócitos, e butirilcolinesterase (BChE) no soro; e (3) avaliar os níveis de purinas no soro. Os resultados da avaliação do sistema purinérgico demonstraram que a hidrólise do trifosfato de adenosina (ATP) e difosfato de adenosina (ADP) foram diminuídas, bem como a atividade da E-ADA também esteva diminuída. Em relação a dosagem das colinesterases, observou-se um aumento na atividade da AChE nos linfócitos e no cérebro, e diminuição da BChE. Na dosagem do nível de purinas no soro, verificou-se um aumento nos níveis de ATP e adenosina (ADO) no dia 20 pós-infecção (PI), aumento de ATP e diminuição da ADO, inosina e ácido úrico no dia 50 PI. A avaliação da atividade da E-NTPDase e E-ADA levou a conclusão de que seus comportamentos hidrolíticos seriam compensatórios enquanto a E-NTPDase teria uma ação pró-inflamatória a E-ADA teria uma ação anti-inflamatória, gerando mecanismo de proteção contra danos teciduais secundários, possivelmente gerados respostas exacerbadas à infecção por C. neoformans. Adicionalmente, os dados da atividade da AChE, em amostras correspondentes, comprovaram o estabelecimento de uma resposta pró-inflamatória, corroborando com a hipótese da necessidade de um mecanismo de modulação. Por fim, observou-se um aumento nos níveis extracelulares de ATP caracterizando uma resposta pró-inflamatória. Desta forma, foi possível observar que existe uma participação direta dos sistemas purinérgico e colinérgico na imunomodulação da criptococose experimental, contribuindo para a instalação de uma resposta imune celular adequada para combater a proliferação da levedura, e um mecanismo de redução de danos teciduais associados à resposta imune exacerbada. / Cryptococcosis is a systemic fungal infection predominantly opportunistic, caused by encapsulated yeast from Cryptococcus genus. Cryptococcus neoformans infections are common worldwide, and the severe forms are observed in immunocompromised patients. The main source of cryptococcosis infection are bird droppings (especially pigeons) contaminated with the fungus, and the inhalation of basidiospore is the main route of infection. The establishment and spread of infection are highly dependent of the host immunity, and the cellular immune system is the primary mechanism for defense against C. neoformans. In recent years it has been described other elements as activators and modulators of the immune response, highlighting the purinergic and the cholinergic system. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the influence of experimental cryptococcosis on the activity of purinergic and cholinergic systems through three objectives: (1) to evaluate the activity of the ecto-diphosphohydrolases (E-NTPDase) and ecto-adenosine deaminase (E-ADA ) in lymphocytes and serum; (2) the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in the brain and lymphocytes, and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in serum; and (3) evaluate the serum levels of purines. The results of the evaluation in the purinergic system demonstrated that the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) was decreased as well as the E-ADA activity. For the dosage of the cholinesterase, there was an increase in AChE activity in lymphocytes and in the brain, and a decreased in BChE. The measurement of serum purine level demonstrate an increase in the levels of ATP and adenosine) on day 20 post-infection (PI), an increased in ATP and decreased in ADO, inosine and uric acid on day 50 PI. The assessment of the E-NTPDase and E-ADA activity led the conclusion that their hydrolytic behavior would be compensatory while the E-NTPDase would have a pro-inflammatory action, E-ADA would have an anti-inflammatory action, generating protective mechanism against secondary damage tissue, producing possibly exacerbated responses to C. neoformans infection. In addition, data of AChE activity in corresponding samples confirmed the establishment of a pro-inflammatory response, corroborating the hypothesis of the need for a modulation mechanism. Finally, there was an increase in extracellular levels of ATP featuring a pro-inflammatory response. In this way, it was observed a direct involvement of the purinergic and cholinergic systems in immunomodulation of experimental cryptococcosis, contributing to the installation of an immune cell response suitable to combat the proliferation of yeast, and a reduction mechanism of tissue damage associated with response immune exacerbated.

O sistema colinérgico está sabidamente envolvido com processos cognitivos. Em trabalho recente mostramos que a infusão do peptídeo A promoveu neurodegeneração e redução da memória de ratos. O treino semanal dos animais em equipamento de esquiva ativa recuperou o desempenho na tarefa e aumentou a densidade de receptores nicotínicos &alpha;7 em áreas relacionadas à memória. No presente trabalho, o antagonismo de &alpha;7 com metilicaconitina (MLA), em camundongos, promoveu perda cognitiva, porém a recuperação com o treino foi parcial. A infusão conjunta de &beta;A e MLA causou perda da memória, mas essa não foi revertida com o treino semanal. Os animais com MLA apresentaram aumento da atividade da acetilcolinesterase (AChE) e aumento de BDNF, que poderia ser relacionado à resiliência a injúrias. Porém, animais com A e MLA apresentaram aumento da atividade da AChE e redução de BDNF, sugerindo perda dos mecanismos de neuroproteção deflagrados por &alpha;7. Com isso, sugere-se que &alpha;7 tenha um papel determinante na recuperação da memória e resiliência tecidual, frente à neurodegeneração. / Cholinergic system plays an important role in cognitive processes. In a recent work we showed that infusion of A&beta; promoted neurodegeneration and reduction of memory of rats. Week training of animals in active avoidance shuttle box recovered their performance and increased the density of &alpha;7 nicotinic receptors in brain areas related to memory. In the present work, infusion of the &alpha;7 antagonist methyllycaconitine (MLA), in mice, caused cognitive impairment, but memory recover with week training was partial. Infusion of &beta;A together with MLA promoted memory loss, but this was not recovered with the week training. MLA infused mice presented increase in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and increase in BDNF, which could be related to resilience to tissue injuries. However, animals infused with &beta;A and MLA showed increase in AChE activity and reduction of BDNF, suggesting loss of neuroprotection mechanisms triggered by &alpha;7. It is suggested that &alpha;7 has a determinant role in memory recover and brain resilience, in neurodegenerative processes.

Current smoking cessation guidelines recommend nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) to assist pregnant smokers to quit, but this is without strong evidence for effectiveness and safety. Nicotine, the main addictive component of tobacco, is known to exert physiological effects by binding to its receptor, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). Recent studies have identified the presence of nAChRs in non-neuronal cells, and in macrophages, functional alteration upon stimulation with nicotine has been documented. To understand the impact of in utero nicotine exposure on various immune cell disposition and function, we designed preliminary studies using an in vivo model of P. aeruginosa infection. In this model, pregnant mice were exposed to nicotine and after weaning, offspring were infected intra-tracheally and humanely killed 5 days later. Nicotine-exposed mice had a greater weight reduction post-infection. This was accompanied by a decreased number of neutrophil, resident macrophages, and B lymphocytes in the lungs, while the number of B lymphocytes in the lymph nodes were greater than that of the control group. In the lung lavage fluids, IL-6, MCP-1, and TNFα concentrations were elevated in nicotine-exposed mice. In an in vitro system using bone marrow-derived macrophages, a significantly reduced production of IFNγ was observed in nicotine-exposed mice when cells were stimulated with LPS. To characterize and compare gene expression in macrophages isolated from neonates developmentally exposed to nicotine, we designed a clinical study to recruit pregnant mothers who 1) did not smoke during pregnancy, 2) smoked throughout pregnancy, or 3) used NRT during pregnancy. We found that successful RNA isolation can be achieved from neonatal tracheal aspirate samples and cell number and reagent volumes were important determinants of acceptable RNA quality and quantity. Together, these preliminary findings demonstrate a possible alteration in immune response as a result of in utero nicotine exposure and sets a groundwork for future studies in identifying mechanisms underlying the impact of developmental nicotine exposure.

Environs 70 millions de personnes seront atteintes par la maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) en 2030 et les coûts engendrés par la prise en charge des patients affectés par cette pathologie excédera quatre fois les coûts des maladies cancéreuses. Dans le but lutter contre cette pathologie multifactorielle, des stratégies thérapeutiques combinatoires ainsi que le développement de MTDL « Multi Target Directed Ligands » suscitent un grand intérêt. Dans ce contexte, l’association d’inhibiteurs de l’acétylcholinestérase (AChE) avec les agonistes des récepteurs sérotoninergiques de type 4 (5-HT4) a montré des effets bénéfiques sur la mémoire et la protection du cerveau chez les rongeurs. Après avoir démontré l’avantage de l’association de la galantamine, un inhibiteur de l’AChE avec le RS 67333, un agoniste des récepteurs 5-HT4 dans un modèle de déficit mnésique induit par la scopolamine sur les performances de mémoires de travail et de référence, nous avons étudié le donecopride, un MTDL récemment développé, à la fois inhibiteur de l’AChE et agoniste partiel des récepteurs 5-HT4. Chez les souris sauvages, une administration unique de donecopride augmente la sécrétion du neuropeptide protecteur sAPPα et a démontré des effets anti-amnésiants et pro-cognitifs. Dans un modèle amyloïdogénique de la MA (5xFAD), six mois de traitement chronique par le donecopride ont amélioré les performances de mémoire de travail à l’âge de 9 mois, sans modifier la densité des plaques amyloïdes au niveau cérébral. Par ailleurs, nous avons également étudié les effets d’un autre composé MTDL « 7m » qui est à la fois agoniste des récepteurs 5-HT4 et antagoniste des récepteurs 5-HT6, qui a montré des effets anti-amnésiants chez les souris sauvages lorsque le déficit mnésique est induit par administration de scopolamine. Ainsi, la modulation chronique et simultanée de différentes cibles centrales d’intérêt représente un potentiel thérapeutique important dans le cadre du traitement de la MA. / In 2030, the number of people affected by Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is expected to reach almost 70 million, and the cost of the disease would be over four folds cost of cancer diseases care. To face the multifactorial disease combining drugs arouse a big interest and the concept of MTDL “Multi Target Directed Ligands” has emerged. Thus, combining acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors with serotonergic receptor type 4 (5-HT4) showed beneficial effects on memory and brain protection in rodents. First, we showed beneficial effects of galatamine, an AChE inhibitor while combined to RS 67333, a 5-HT4 receptors partial agonist, on working and reference memory performances in a pharmacological model with scopolamine-induced amnesia. Then, we assessed effects of donecopride, the AChE inhibitor and partial agonist of 5-HT4 receptors. Donecopride, which increases sAPPα release in cell culture and C57BL/6 mice, showed anti-amnesiant and pro-cognitive effects in NMRI mice. In 5xFAD mice, an amyloidogenic mice model of AD, six months of chronic treatment of donecopride improves working memory performances in 9 months old 5xFAD mice, but does not affect spatial learning performances neither flexibility. Moreover, donecopride inhibits AChE and does not affect 5-HT4 receptor expression level neither amyloid plaque density in the brain. In the other hand, we also showed that the MTDL, which modulate 5-HT4 and 5-HT6 receptors, recovers working memory performances in NMRI mice where scopolamine induced memory deficit. Thus, hitting multiple targets, particularly while administered early and chronically, accounts for a hopeful strategy to better face AD