Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Methylmercury (MeHg) is an important environmental toxicant that may cause irreversible neurobehavioral and neuropsychological disorders in humans and experimental animals. The major mechanisms of MeHg-induced toxicity currently being explored are the disruption of intracellular calcium homeostasis, the induction of oxidative stress, inhibition of neuronal Na+/K+ -ATPase activity and change the status of antioxidant systems. In addition, recent data reported the involvement of MeHg toxicity with damage in thioredoxin system. On the other hand, flavonoids have been reported to possess divalent metal chelating properties, antioxidant activities and to readily permeate the blood brain barrier. They can also provide neuroprotection in a wide array of cellular and animal models of neurological diseases, including protection against MeHg toxicity. However, the exact mechanism of MeHg toxicity remain unclear and limited data on the interaction of MeHg with flavonoids are avaliable in literature. In view of this, our study evaluated the mechanisms of MeHg toxicity in vivo and in vitro models and evaluated the performance of different flavonoids: quercetin, quercitrin and rutin in diferent models of MeHg toxicity. Our study showed that MeHg (100 μM) caused lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in brain cortical slices. Quercitrin and quercetin protected against this toxicity and mitochondria from MeHg (5 μM)-induced ROS generation. In contrast, rutin did not afford a significant protective effect against MeHg (100 μM)-induced lipid peroxidation and ROS production in cortical brain slices. MeHg-generated ROS in cortical slices was dependent upon an increase in intracellular calcium levels. In vivo studies with mice treated during 30 days with MeHg (5mg/Kg) orally, presented a marked increase in toxicity parameters (loss in body weight gain, increased in micronucleis frequencies, nefrotoxicity), decrease in motor system performance (locomotor activity and motor coordination) and spatial memory deficiency as well as alteration in some biochemical parameters (decrease in glutathione peroxidase and Na+/K+ ATPase activity, increase in lipid peroxidation). The co-treatment with quercitrin (10mg/kg) intraperitoneally, decreased the behavior alterations manly by decreased lipid peroxidation levels, maintained the Na+/K+ ATPase and GPx activities. In addition, our study demonstrated, for the first time, that MeHg inhibited the activity of thioredoxin reductase. A single oral MeHg administration (1, 5 and 10 mg/Kg) caused a marked inhibition of kidney TrxR, while in liver a significant inhibition was observed after exposure to 5 and 10 mg/Kg of MeHg (TrxR was determined 24 hours after MeHg). In brain, MeHg did not inhibit TrxR. In vitro results demonstrated that MeHg inhibited brain (0.05 1 μM) , liver (0.05 1 μM) and kidney (0.025 1 μM) TrxR in a dose dependent manner Here, we have extended the characterization of mechanisms associated with the neuroprotective effects of flavonoids quercetin and quercitrin against MeHg-induced toxicity. In addition, we provided novel data establishing that (1) calcium plays a central role in MeHg toxicity, (2) in brain slices MeHg induces mitochondrial oxidative stress both via direct interaction with mitochondria as well as via mitochondria- indirect mechanisms. In addition (3) MeHg (5mg/kg) caused a number of behavioural alterations that are related with an inhibition of cerebelar and cerebral GPx and Na+/K+ ATPase activities and (4) increased in lipid peroxidation.The higly affinity of MeHg to selenol groups of endogenous molecules can lead to (5) inhibition of thioredoxin reductase that can contribute to MeHg toxicity. We conclude that MeHg lead to increase in mitochondria ROS generation that contributes to increase in lipid peroxidation. In addition, the inhibition of important antioxidant enzymes such as GPx ans TrxR can contribute to oxidative damage that can be related to development of behavioral damage. In this view the antioxidant activity of flavonoids quercetin and quercitrin seems to be direct associate with the capacity of flavonoids to confere protection against MeHg toxicity. / O metilmercúrio (MeHg) é um importante agente tóxico ambiental que pode causar desordens neurocomportamentais e neurofisiológicas irreversíveis em humanos e animais experimentais. Os principais mecanismos pelos quais o MeHg induz toxicidade são: a ruptura na homeostase do cálcio intracelular, a indução de estresse oxidativo, a inibição da atividade da Na+/K+ ATPase neuronal e mudanças nos níveis das enzimas antioxidantes. Adicionalmente, dados recentes relatam o envolvimento do sistema da tiorredoxina como um dos alvos de toxicidade do MeHg. Por outro lado, os flavonóides possuem propriedades quelantes para metal divalente, atividade antioxidante e são permeáveis a barreira cérebro-sangue. Além disso, eles podem oferecer neuroproteção a uma variedade de modelos animais e celulares de doenças neurológicas, incluindo proteção contra a toxicidade do MeHg. Considerando que o exato mecanismo pelo qual o MeHg exerce toxicidade permanece desconhecido e que poucos e controversos dados sobre a interação do MeHg com flavonóides são encontrados na literatura, este estudo avaliou os mecanismos de toxicidade do MeHg em modelos in vitro e in vivo bem como, o desempenho de diferentes flavonóides: quercetina, quercitrina e rutina em diferentes modelos de toxicidade induzidos pelo MeHg. Nosso estudo mostrou que o MeHg (100μM) causou aumento na peroxidação lipídica e na produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) em fatias de córtex de ratos. Os flavonóides quercitrina (25 μg/mL) e quercetina (5, 10 e 25 μg/mL) protegeram contra esta toxicidade, e contra o aumento de ERO produzidas pelo MeHg (5μM) nas mitocôndrias. Diferentemente, o flavonóide rutina não obteve efeito protetor contra a indução da peroxidação lipídica e produção de ERO induzidas pelo MeHg em fatias corticais de cérebro. O aumento na produção de ERO, geradas pelo MeHg, foi dependente do aumento dos níveis intracelulares de cálcio (artigo 1). Já, estudos in vivo com camundongos tratados oralmente com MeHg (5mg/kg), durante 30 dias, mostraram um marcado aumento nos parâmetros de toxicidade (diminuição no ganho de peso, aumento na freqüência de micronúcleos e nefrotoxicidade), diminuição no desempenho do sistema motor (atividade locomotora e coordenação motora), e deficiência na memória espacial, bem como alterações em vários parâmetros bioquímicos (diminuição na atividade da glutationa peroxidase (GPx) e Na+/K+ ATPase e aumento na peroxidação lipídica). O co-tratamento com quercitrina (10mg/kg) pela via intraperitoneal, diminuiu as alterações comportamentais principalmente por diminuir os níveis de peroxidação lipídica e manter a atividade da GPx e da Na+/K+ ATPase iguais aos níveis do controle (manuscrito 1). Além disso, nosso estudo demonstrou, pela primeira vez, que o MeHg inibe a atividade da tiorredoxina redutase (TrxR). Uma única administração oral de MeHg (1, 5, 10 mg/kg), causou uma marcada inibição na atividade da TrxR renal, enquanto no fígad observou-se uma inibição significativa após exposição a 5 e 10 mg/kg (a atividade da TrxR foi determinada 24 horas após a administração de MeHg). No cérebro, o MeHg não inibiu a atividade da TrxR in vivo (artigo 2). Já os resultados in vitro revelaram que o MeHg causou uma inibição concentração dependente na atividade da enzima TrxR isolada de cérebro (0,05 1 μM) fígado (0,05 - 1 μM) e rim (0,025 1 μM). Assim, nós ampliamos a caracterização dos mecanismos associados com os efeitos neuroprotetores dos flavonóides quercetina e quercitrina na toxicidade induzida pelo MeHg. Adicionalmente, outros dados sobre a toxicidade do MeHg, foram obtidos, tais como: (1) o cálcio desempenha um papel central na toxicidade do MeHg, (2) em fatias de cérebro de ratos o MeHg induz estresse oxidativo mitocondrial via interação direta com as mitocôndrias, bem como via mecanismos mitocondriais indiretos. Além disso, (3) o MeHg (5mg/kg) pode levar a inúmeras alterações comportamentais que podem estar relacionadas à inibição da atividade das enzimas GPx e Na+/K+ ATPase e (4) aumento na peroxidação lipídica. A alta afinidade do MeHg por grupos selenóis das moléculas endógenas pode levar (5) a inibição da TrxR o que pode contribuir para a toxicidade do MeHg. Podemos concluir que o MeHg leva a um aumento na produção de ERO pelas mitocôndrias, o que contribui para um aumento na peroxidação lipídica induzida pelo MeHg. Além disso, a inibição de importantes enzimas antioxidantes como a GPx e a TrxR podem contribuir para aumentar o dano oxidativo, que parece estar relacionado com o aparecimento dedanos comportamentais. Desta forma a atividade antioxidante dos flavonóides quercetina e quercitrina parece estar diretamente associada à capacidade destes compostos emproteger contra a toxicidade do MeHg.

This thesis investigates the neurotoxic effects in mice neonatally co-exposed to different toxic environmental agents during a defined critical period of the brains's rapid growth and development. Environmental toxic agents are incorporated in our environment. The agents investigated in this thesis are ortho-substituted polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs 52, and 153), co-planar PCB (PCB 126), polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE 99), methyl mercury (MeHg), and γ-radiation. Several epidemiological studies show that human exposure to environmental agents during early development can affect childhood cognitive development. The brain growth spurt (BGS) is defined by rapid growth and development of the immature brain. For rodents (rats and mice) the BGS is postnatal spanning the first 3-4 weeks after birth. For humans this period begins during the third trimester of pregnancy and continues throughout the first two years of life. Several studies have shown that the BGS period of the brain's development renders the brain vunerable and susceptible to insults caused by environmental agents. The combinations of environmental agents used in this thesis were: PCB 52 + PBDE 99, PCB 153 + MeHg, PCB 126 + MeHg, PBDE 99 + MeHg, and γ-radiation + MeHg. The studies presented in this thesis show that co-exposure to low doses of environmental agents lead to interaction effects. These effects of interaction include defective spontaneous behavior, diminished habituation capabilities and hyperactive condition, decreased learning and memory abilities, and reduction in the nicotinic cholinergic receptor densities. Traditionally environmental agents are evaluated one at a time to investigate their effects of toxicity. This thesis indicates that the effects of interaction caused by co-exposure were often seen at doses where exposure to the individual environmental agent alone did not cause any effect. The observed effect of co-exposure were often as pronounced as a dose up to ten times the individual environmental agent alone.

Recent research has shown that the Arctic may be a sink for mercury, however, the fate of this deposited mercury in the environment is not known. The objective of this project was to determine the factors affecting methyl mercury (MeHg) production in Arctic organic soil on the Truelove Lowlands, Devon Island, Canada. In the field we observed a steady decrease in MeHg over time, with MeHg concentration at many sampling locations declining below detection limits. This decrease did not correlate to any chemical or biophysical parameter measured. During the study the Lowlands appeared to be mildly reducing with dissolved Fe(II) being present in the porewater, however, no correlation was observed between MeHg production and the variables measured. The dissolved organic matter concentration of the porewater was quite high, the pH was circumneutral and it would seem that in the absence of more highly reducing conditions that mercury would be unavailable for methylation.<p> It seems likely under field conditions MeHg was much more bioavailable then inorganic mercury. This would lead to a higher rate of demethylation then methylation and a net decrease in MeHg. Little research has been done on demethylation and the effect of environmental conditions on demethylation, especially in arctic environments. However, it is possible that the rate of demethylation was not affected by changes in temperature or any other parameter measured over the course of the field study. <p> Laboratory microcosm studies using saturated soil from the organic horizons demonstrated little potential for unspiked organic soil to produce significant amounts of MeHg. The spiked treatment, however, had an eight fold increase in MeHg concentration and the sterile treatment showed no change in MeHg concentration over 40 days of freeze (-5 0C) and 59 days of thaw (4 oC). <p> Our data suggests that a combination of atmospheric and in-situ processes maintain a cycle of MeHg production (spring) and loss (summer) in arctic soils. It would seem that Arctic wetland soils are not a significant source of MeHg to the Arctic ecosystem and that snowmelt is the dominant source.

Recent research has shown that the Arctic may be a sink for mercury, however, the fate of this deposited mercury in the environment is not known. The objective of this project was to determine the factors affecting methyl mercury (MeHg) production in Arctic organic soil on the Truelove Lowlands, Devon Island, Canada. In the field we observed a steady decrease in MeHg over time, with MeHg concentration at many sampling locations declining below detection limits. This decrease did not correlate to any chemical or biophysical parameter measured. During the study the Lowlands appeared to be mildly reducing with dissolved Fe(II) being present in the porewater, however, no correlation was observed between MeHg production and the variables measured. The dissolved organic matter concentration of the porewater was quite high, the pH was circumneutral and it would seem that in the absence of more highly reducing conditions that mercury would be unavailable for methylation.<p> It seems likely under field conditions MeHg was much more bioavailable then inorganic mercury. This would lead to a higher rate of demethylation then methylation and a net decrease in MeHg. Little research has been done on demethylation and the effect of environmental conditions on demethylation, especially in arctic environments. However, it is possible that the rate of demethylation was not affected by changes in temperature or any other parameter measured over the course of the field study. <p> Laboratory microcosm studies using saturated soil from the organic horizons demonstrated little potential for unspiked organic soil to produce significant amounts of MeHg. The spiked treatment, however, had an eight fold increase in MeHg concentration and the sterile treatment showed no change in MeHg concentration over 40 days of freeze (-5 0C) and 59 days of thaw (4 oC). <p> Our data suggests that a combination of atmospheric and in-situ processes maintain a cycle of MeHg production (spring) and loss (summer) in arctic soils. It would seem that Arctic wetland soils are not a significant source of MeHg to the Arctic ecosystem and that snowmelt is the dominant source.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal. / L'objectif de cette étude était de développer des biomarqueurs de la neurotoxicité précoce du MeHg chez le rat adulte, en utilisant les lymphocytes et plaquettes du sang circulant comme substituts de neurones centraux. Pour ce faire, nous avons d'abord évalué la captation de la choline, de la dopamine (DA), de la sérotonine (5-HT), la liaison aux récepteurs muscarinergiques (mChRs) et dopaminergic Ds dans les synaptosomes du cortex cérébral, du striatum, de l'hypothalamus, de l'hippocampe, du tronc cérébral et du cervelet, après exposition in vitro à différentes concentrations de chlomre de MeHg (0, l, 2.5 et 5 µM). Dans ces conditions, la captation de la 5-HT était mesurée au niveau des plaquettes. De même, la captation de la DA et la liaison aux récepteurs mCKRs et Dz étaient évaluées au niveau des lymphocytes du sang circulant. Enfin, les résultats in vitro étaient validés en évaluant les voies cholinergiques et monoaminergiques dans les mêmes régions du cerveau et au niveau des plaquettes et lymphocytes chez des rats mâles adultes gavés au chlorure de MeHg (0, 2, 4 et 6 mg/kg pendant 10 jours consécutifs).

Monomethylmercury, MeHg, is formed under anoxic conditions in waters, sediments and soils and then bioaccumulated and biomagnified in aquatic food webs, negatively effecting both human and wildlife health. It is generally accepted that precipitation of mercury, Hg, and adsorption of Hg to e.g. organic matter and mineral surfaces are important processes limiting the reactivity of Hg mobilized in the environment by natural and anthropogenic activities. However, knowledge concerning the role of different solid and adsorbed chemical forms of Hg for MeHg formation, evasion and bioaccumulation is missing. Such information is vital for the understanding of environmental processes controlling MeHg formation and bioaccumulation, as well as for predicting how changes in e.g. loading rates of atmospheric Hg and the outcome of climate change scenarios and anthropogenic land use could alter Hg concentrations in biota. In this thesis, a novel experimental approach, using isotopically enriched solid and adsorbed phases of inorganic Hg, HgII, as tracers, was developed. Using this approach, we successfully determined rates of MeHg formation from solid and adsorbed Hg species in sediment slurries and in mesocosm systems under conditions closely resembling those in field. We conclude that the solid/adsorbed phase speciation of HgII is a major controlling factor for MeHg net formation rates. Microcosm experiments revealed that newly formed MeHg was a major contributor to the evasion of MeHg from the water‒sediment system, emphasizing the importance of MeHg formation rate, rather than MeHg concentration, in the sediment for this process. From mesocosm systems, we provide experimental evidence, as well as quantitate data, for that terrestrial and atmospheric sources of HgII and MeHg are more available for methylation and bioaccumulation processes than HgII and MeHg stored and formed in sediments. This suggests that the contribution from terrestrial and atmospheric sources to the accumulation of Hg in fish may have been underestimated. As a consequence, in regions where climate change is expected to further increase land runoff, terrestrial MeHg sources may have even higher negative effects on biota than previously thought. Data and concepts presented in this thesis lay the basis for unprecedented in-depth modeling of processes in the Hg biogeochemical cycle that will improve our understanding and the predicting power on how aquatic ecosystems may respond to environmental changes or differences in loading rates for atmospheric Hg. / Monometylkvicksilver, MeHg, bildas under anoxiska förhållanden i naturliga vatten, sediment och jordar och bioackumuleras och magnifieras därefter i den akvatiska näringskedjan med negativa effekter på djur och människor som följd. Det är generellt vedertaget att utfällning av Hg och adsorption av Hg till exempelvis organiskt material och mineralytor begränsar tillgängligheten för biogeokemiska reaktioner av Hg som mobiliserats i miljön via naturliga och antropogena processer. Kunskap om betydelsen av speciationen av Hg i fasta och adsorberade faser för bildning, avgång och bioackumulering av MeHg är dock bristfällig. Denna information är kritisk för att förstå vilka processer som kontrollerar bildning och bioackumulering av MeHg samt för att kunna prediktera hur olika ekosystem kan förväntas svara på exempelvis ändrad deposition av atmosfäriskt Hg eller hur klimatförändringar kan påverka koncentrationerna av Hg i fisk. I denna avhandling har en experimentell metod utvecklades, där isotopanrikade fasta och adsorberade kemiska former av oorganiska tvåvärt Hg, Hg II används som s.k. "tracers". Denna metod användes för att bestämma MeHg bildningshasigheter i homogeniserade sediment prover samt i mesokosmsystem där förhållandena efterliknar de som förväntas i naturliga ekosystem. Från dessa drar vi slutsatsen att speciationen av HgII i fast/adsorberad fas är en viktig kontrollerande faktor som begränsar nettobildningen av MeHg. Mikrokosmexperiment visade att i första hand nyligt bildad MeHg avgick till gasfas vilket understryker betydelsen av MeHg bildningshastighet, snarare än koncentration, i sedimentet för denna process. Från mesokosmexperimenten visar vi, med kvantitativa data, att terrestra och atmosfäriska källor av HgII och MeHg är mer tillgängliga för bildning och bioackumulering av MeHg än HgII och MeHg lagrat eller bildat i sedimenten. Orsaken till detta är framförallt skillnad i speciationen av Hg i fasta/adsorberade faser. Detta innebär att bidraget från MeHg från terrestra och atmosfäriska källor till koncentrationen av Hg i fisk kan ha underskattats, samt att de negativa effekterna på MeHg exponering i områden där exempelvis klimat-förändringar förväntas leda till ökad terrest avrinning kan bli mer allvarliga än vad som tidigare predikterats. Data som presenteras i denna avhandling möjliggör modellering av Hg’s biogeokemiska cykel på en ny detaljnivå samt möjliggör säkrare prediktioner av hur olika ekosystem kan förväntas svara mot miljöförändringar eller ändrad deposition av atmosfäriskt Hg. / <p>Till Finansiärer skall också följande läggas till: Kempe stiftelsen (SMK-2942, SMK-2745, JCK-2413).</p>

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