Thesis advisor: Philip G. Altbach / The purpose of this study is to examine the reasons why Japanese visiting scholars visited the United States, their activities and experiences during their visits, their challenges and support for their transition, and personal and contextual factors that affected their transition in different stages. Although short-term international scholar mobility has recently increased, there are few studies on the population of international visiting scholars. In addition, while there is an overall increase in the number of international scholars, the number of Japanese scholars is decreasing. This qualitative study explores the Japanese visiting scholars' experiences of transition by drawing upon Schlossberg's adult transition model (e.g., Anderson, Goodman, and Schlossberg, 2011). The findings show that the purpose of visit and activities during the visits varied by individuals, although most activities were individual and professional ones, such as conducting research, networking, and teaching. While the first-time visiting scholars engaged in English practice and observation of cultural differences, the scholars with family members reported social experiences through their children's schools. Several scholars worked on institutional relations during their visits. The challenges that the visiting scholars faced varied by the timing during their transition. Common challenges included finding opportunities at their home institutions, finding the host universities, setting up life in a new community, finding opportunities for interactions, and dealing with language and cultural issues. The expected challenges after their returning to home were mainly related to institutional arrangements and societal differences. The factors that influenced their transition included the arrangements at home and host institutions, academic fields, past American academic experiences, existing networks with Japanese and American colleagues, and their personalities. Recommendations are provided for American and Japanese universities, individual visiting scholars, and the Japanese government. As for implications from this study, since the Japanese visiting scholars mostly relied on their personal connections and previous experiences for transitions, in order to utilize international visiting scholars for short-term brain circulation, institutional and governmental support and policy arrangements need to be structured as a part of the initiative for the internationalization of higher education. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2014. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Leadership and Higher Education.

Os reservatórios, ao longo do tempo, passaram de simples controle de enchente para a produção de energia elétrica e, nos últimos anos, para um uso múltiplo. Em todos os casos, a qualidade é de suma importância. Nesta pesquisa, propõe-se analisar a resposta dos reservatórios de Barra Bonita e Carlos Botelho (Lobo-Broa) no estado de São Paulo, nas latitudes de 22º31\' S e 22º15\' S respectivamente e o de Tucuruí no estado do Pará a 3º45\' S aos diferentes fatores climatológicos, hidrológicos e limnológicos. Dados limnológicos, climatológicos, hidrológicos, imagens de satélites, foram obtidos de fontes diversas. Calcularam-se os parâmetros morfométricos, características físicas como conteúdo de calor, trabalho de vento, resistência térmica à circulação, os números adimensionais de Wedderburn, Richardson, Froude e Lake Number, as variâncias, as correlações e regressões entre os diferentes parâmetros. Observou-se que os reservatórios de Barra Bonita e Broa considerados rasos são sensíveis aos fatores climatológicos e Tucuruí aos fatores hidrológicos e infiltrações. O Broa e Barra Bonita passam por instabilidade quando a estação passa de outono para inverno e da primavera para o verão. Com relação aos nutrientes, na Barra Bonita, o fosfato total (PO4), amônia (NH4) e nitrato (NO3) tiveram correlações positivas com o conteúdo de calor, trabalho de vento e a resistência térmica a circulação. As correlações não foram significativas com a estabilidade mostrando que quanto maior a estabilidade, menos disponível se tornam os compostos. No Broa as correlações positivas foram observadas entre a estabilidade e o silicato, o nitrito. Então há maior disponibilidade de nutriente (fosfato total, nitrato, amônia) no período de instabilidade. Como resposta na Barra Bonita observa-se o desenvolvimento dos Bacillariophyceae (Aulacoseira italica e Aulacoseira granulate) durante as instabilidades. No período de inverno e verão, diminui os Bacillariophyceae conseqüência de uma diminuição de nutrientes e um desenvolvimento de Chlorophyceae. Enquanto isso no Broa, durante o período de estabilidade, são disponibilizados a sílica (Si) e o nitrito (NO2), reduzindo o PO4, a (NH4) e o NO3. As estabilidades das UHE de Barra Bonita e Carlos Botelho localizada no sudeste do Brasil ocorrem no verão enquanto que de Tucuruí muda de estado nos períodos de chuva e estiagem. Com estas mudanças de estado, ocorre uma sucessão de comunidade planctônica e um aumento dos custos de tratamento de água. / Reservoir uses have evolved from simple control of inundation to a vast gamut of multiple uses. In all reservoirs, at present, control of water quality as well as water quantity is a fundamental need. Responses of reservoirs related to water quality and quantity are dependent upon climatological and hydrological cycles as forcing functions. The objective of this research was to analyze the impact of climatological and hydrological factors on the limnology and productivity of reservoirs. For this research three reservoirs were selected : Barra Bonita (Lat 22º31\' S/Long 48º33\' W), Carlos Botelho (Lobo-Broa) (Lat 22º15\' S/Long 47º49\' W) and Tucuruí reservoir (Lat 3º45\'03\'\' S/Long 49º40\'03\'\' W). Morphometric parameters, physical factors : heat content, thermal resistance to circulation and non dimensional numbers such as Wedderburn, Richardson, Lake Number and Froude were calculated. Statistic analyses : variance, regression and correlation coefficient were also determined. The data on climatology, hydrology and limnology were obtained from published papers, thesis and dissertations available. The results show that shallow reservoirs such as Barra Bonita and Carlos Botelho (12 m average depth and 3.2 m average depth respectively) were affected by climatic factors such as air temperature, wind and effects of cold fronts. Tucuruí reservoir, deeper and located at low latitude is influenced by hidrologic factors such as rainfall, river flow, drainage water. The response of the reservoir is shown by the frequency of stability/mixing patterns. When there is circulation, such as in Barra Bonita and Carlos Botelho (Lobo/Broa) reservoirs, nutrients availability increases. Both in Barra Bonita and Carlos Botelho reservoirs mixing patterns increase the presence of diatoms in the water column (Aulacoseira italica for Carlos Botelho reservoir and Aulacoseira italica and Aulacoseira granulata for Barra Bonita reservoir). When stability occurs, Cyanophyta will develop its blooms specially in Barra Bonita, a eutrophic reservoir. The stability for both reservoirs located in the Southeast of Brazil occurs during the summer. Tucuruí reservoir change states during the year, specially during the periods of high and low rainfall corresponding to high and low water discharge. With the impact of the mixing, processes that promote changes in the vertical structure of the reservoir water quality increases the costs of treatment. Thus, the successive pulses that changes community succession (planktonic community) in the reservoirs are a consequence of external forces, climatological or hydrological or both.

Increasing numbers of old and sick patients who are no longer eligible for prolonged invasive implantation surgery have encouraged many researchers to investigate the development of a Mechanical Circulatory Support (MCS) device with more reliability and less possible invasive complications, which would benefit the majority of patients. This thesis will test experimentally and numerically the feasibility of installing an MCS device, as a bridge to destination, in the descending aorta, in a series configuration with the heart. To this end, a multi-chamber Simulator of the Cardio-Vascular blood-flow Loop (SCVL) was designed to simulate the in-vitro flow rates, pressures and other parameters representing normal and diseased conditions of the human cardiovascular system. The multi-chamber SCVL includes models for all four chambers of the heart, and the systemic as well as the pulmonic circulations. Next, a comprehensive study was conducted using the SCVL system to compare the novel in-series placement of the pump, in the descending aorta, with traditional in-parallel placements. Then, a comprehensive numerical study was conducted using the modified Concentrated Lumped Parameter (CLP) model developed by the same team. The numerical results are compared and verified by the experimental results under various conditions. The results for the pump installed in the descending aorta show that the pressure drop, upstream of the pump, facilitates the cardiac output as a result of after-load reduction. However, at the same time the generated pressure drop at the proximal part of the descending aorta induces a slight drop in the carotid perfusion which will be autoregulated by the brain in a native system. Further, the pressure rise downstream of the pump improves the blood perfusion in the renal artery. The pulse wave analysis show that the placement of the pump in the descending aorta leads to improved pulsatility which is beneficial for end-organ functionality in the native cardiovascular system.

Cette recherche s’intéresse à la situation des Roms / Roumains, via l’étude des pratiques juridiques en France et en Italie entre 2007 et 2012. A travers les outils du droit public seront étudiées les pratiques administratives ainsi que les décisions politiques et juridiques tendant à gérer l’immigration des Roms / Roumains. Les droits nationaux se sont transformés en 5 ans pour cerner cette population européenne immigrante, ethniquement visée par le discours politique. Les autorités nationales transigent avec le droit européen pour réprimer l’immigration des Roms / Roumains. À travers cette étude est menée, d’une part, une réflexion sur les conditions de transformation de la législation sur de grands thèmes de société comme la pauvreté, la libre circulation des citoyens de l’Union, l’ordre public dans la rue, les propriétés privées et publiques et la mendicité, et d’autre part, une analyse de l’illégalisme et de la marginalité dans l’administration des sociétés contemporaines. / This research focuses on the situation of Roma / Romanians, through the study of legal practice in France and Italy between 2007 and 2012. It analyzes through the public law studies paradigm, the administrative practices, the political and legal decisions of managing migration, living conditions and integration of Roma / Romanian. During five years, italian and french domestic laws have changed in order to exclude the European immigrant population labelled as roma in some the political discourses. National authorities deal with European law in order to suppress immigration of Roma / Romanian. Through this study, was conducted on the one hand, a reflection on the processing conditions of the legislation on major societal issues such as poverty, the free movement of EU citizens, the public order “in the street”, private and public properties, begging, and secondly an analysis of illegality and marginality in the administration of contemporary societies.

The Southern Ocean is an important region for the sequestration of heat, carbon dioxide and other tracers. The Southern Ocean circulation is typically described in a circumpolarly averaged sense as a Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC), but the detailed 3-D pathways that make up this circulation remain poorly understood. We use Lagrangian particle trajectories, obtained from eddy permitting numerical models, to map out and quantify different aspects of the 3-D circulation. We first introduce various definitions used to quantify efficient export from the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) to the subtropical gyres. Using these definitions, we show that the permanent northward export varies by water mass and occurs in localised regions; with 11 key pathways identified. We then examine the dynamics setting the location and efficiency of the identified pathways, which includes the investigation of the role of diapycnal mixing and the impact of short and long time variability in the flow. Although we show that the flow of particles in the 3-D model is predominantly isopycnal, we find that particles that are forced to remain on isopycnals lead to approx. 60% lower export (mainly via three pathways) than identical releases where the diapycnal component of advection is included. Enhanced upward mixing near rough topography, and downward mixing in the southeast Pacific, were shown to be mostly responsible for the export. In addition, we show that most of the export pathways are mainly influenced by timescales from 90 days to 20 years, which suggests that mesoscale eddies are not the leading-order importance in the northward export from the ACC to the subtropical gyres. However, we also find that mesoscale eddies and the mean-ACC flow play a significant role in setting the export from the ACC in some pathways. These results highlight the role of temporal variability and vertical transport in enhancing the northward flow from the ACC by allowing transport across barotropic streamlines and onto more efficiently exporting isopycnals. In addition, the asymmetrical response of the studied quantities emphasises the importance of the three dimensions in understanding the dynamics driving the overturning circulation. We also demonstrated that the annually repeating velocity fields, which are commonly used for trajectory calculations, increase the diapycnal transport of particles and as a consequence, increase the overall 20-year northward export from the ACC by approx. 10%. In the study of the meridional overturning circulation, we diagnose the geographical distribution of the streamwise averaged diffusivity calculated from meridional displacements of the Lagrangian particles. We examine streamwise averaging using both latitude and equivalent latitude and argue that the latter gives a more useful measure. Reconciling tracer and particle horizontal diffusivities, we show that in the ACC, the average diffusivity peaks between 1500m and 2500m with an average value of 1500 m$^{2}$/s and that it is highest near the topographic features. We compare the exact diffusivity and its approximation to show that an assumption of time homogeneity does not hold and therefore that standard expressions for diffusivity that assume time homogeneity are of limited usefulness. Finally, we use the calculated trajectories to provide a streamwise averaged 2-D advection-diffusion model of the Southern Ocean MOC and then examine the extent to which this 2-D model can capture the overall effect of the actual 3-D transport.

The wintertime North-Atlantic exhibits enhanced circulation variability relative to other areas of the globe and is a key determinant of weather and climate in the highly populated regions of Europe and Eastern North America. Previous work has linked extreme stratospheric polar vortex and planetary wave heat flux events with variability of the North-Atlantic circulation. To elucidate the role of the stratosphere in driving variability of the North-Atlantic circulation, the goal of this thesis is to clarify the relationship between extreme planetary wave heat flux and vortex events and understand the dynamical mechanisms driving extreme stratospheric planetary wave heat flux events using an idealized model. The relationship between extreme stratospheric planetary wave heat flux and polar vortex events is clarified by comparing and contrasting their composite lifecycles using reanalysis data. Extreme negative heat flux events, defined as those less than the 5th percentile of the wintertime wave-1 distribution, involve stratospheric EP-flux divergence producing an acceleration of the vortex whereas extreme positive heat flux events, defined as those greater than the 95th percentile, involve stratospheric EP-flux convergence producing a deceleration of the vortex. Similar but smaller magnitude heat flux (22th and 78th percentile) events contribute to the development of longer-timescale vortex events. Negative heat flux events precede strong vortex events, showing that strong vortex events are true dynamical events involving wave-mean flow interaction. Conversely, positive heat flux events precede weak vortex events. The tropospheric jet shifts in the North-Atlantic that occur almost simultaneously with extreme stratospheric heat flux events are shown to be comparable if not larger than those that follow extreme vortex events for several weeks. Next, a dry-dynamical core model is configured to capture the lifecycle of extreme positive and negative heat flux events seen in reanalysis. The events are not captured using the standard model setup with idealized wave-1 topography. A modified control simulation captures the key ingredients of the events: 1) the extremes of the stratospheric eddy heat flux distribution, 2) the cross-spectral correlation and phase between the stratosphere and troposphere, 3) the evolution of the eddy heat flux and EP-flux divergence, 4) the stratospheric evolution of the zonal-mean flow, including the NAM, NAM time-tendency, potential temperature time-tendency and stratospheric wave geometry, and 5) the tropospheric evolution, including the high-latitude wave-1 geopotential height pattern and mid-latitude jet shift. Comparison between the model and reanalysis reveals that higher-order planetary wavenumbers play a role prior to the events. Finally, the dry-dynamical core model is used to examine the large-scale dynamical mechanisms driving extreme stratospheric negative heat flux events and their coupling with the tropospheric circulation. An ensemble spectral nudging methodology is used to isolate the role of: 1) the tropospheric wave-1 precursor, 2) the stratospheric zonal-mean flow and 3) the higher-order wavenumbers. The events are partially reproduced when nudging the wave-1 precursor and the zonal-mean flow whereas they are not reproduced when nudging either separately. In contrast, nudging the wave-1 precursor and the higher-order waves reproduces the events, including the evolution of the zonal-mean flow. Mechanism denial experiments show that the higher-order planetary wavenumbers drive the events by modifying the zonal-mean flow and through wave-wave interaction. Nudging all tropospheric wave precursors confirms they are the source of the stratospheric waves. Nudging all stratospheric waves reproduces the coupling with the tropospheric circulation. Taken together, the experiments show that extreme stratospheric negative heat flux events are consistent with downward wave coupling from the stratosphere to the troposphere.

Due to the wide range of physical scales involved, clouds cannot be fully resolved in models of the global climate, and so are parameterized. The resultant model deficiencies in simulating important cloud processes within the current climate are strongly implicated in the large uncertainty in model predictions of future climate changes. Previous work has highlighted the uncertainties in predictions of future climate related to thermodynamic cloud changes, understanding of which requires detailed observations of small-scale cloud microphysics. In this thesis, we argue that understanding the linkages between mid-latitude clouds and the general circulation of the atmosphere can advance efforts to constrain their response to climate forcing. We make this argument with three main methods of analysis: 1) observations, 2) state-of-the-art general circulation models, and 3) experiments with an idealized model of the global climate. First, we perform a comprehensive investigation of the observed inter-annual relationships between clouds, their radiative effects, and key indices of the large-scale atmospheric circulation. Using reanalysis data and satellite retrievals, we find a relationship between the edge of the Hadley circulation (HC) and the high cloud field that is largely robust against season and ocean basin. In contrast, shifts of the mid-latitude eddy-driven jet latitude, which had been the focus of previous work on the coupling between mid-latitude clouds and circulation, only correlate with the high cloud field in the wintertime North Atlantic. In that season and basin, poleward shifts of the circulation are associated with anomalous shortwave cloud radiative warming. During all seasons in the Southern Hemisphere, however, poleward shifts of the circulation are associated with anomalous shortwave cloud radiative cooling. Second, we examine Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) model output to evaluate the models' simulation of the inter-annual co-variability between the Southern Hemisphere HC extent and the shortwave cloud radiative effect. In the control climate runs, during years when the HC edge is anomalously poleward, most models reduce their cloud cover in the lower mid-latitudes (approximately 30$^\circ$S - 45$^\circ$S) and allow more sunlight to warm the region, although we find no such shortwave radiative warming in observations. We correlate these biases in the co-variability between the HC extent and shortwave cloud radiative anomalies with model biases in the climatological HC extent. Models whose climatological HCs are unrealistically equatorward compared to the observations exhibit weaker climatological subsidence in the lower mid-latitudes and exhibit larger increases in subsidence there with poleward HC extent shifts than models with more realistic climatological HCs. This behavior, based on control climate variability, has important implications for the model response to forcing. In 4$\times$CO$_2$-forced runs, models with unrealistically equatorward HCs in the control climatology exhibit a stronger shortwave cloud radiative warming response in the lower mid-latitudes and tend to have larger values of equilibrium climate sensitivity than models with more realistic HCs in the control climatology. The above correlative analyses suggest that uncertainty in the linkages between mid-latitude clouds and the general circulation of the atmosphere contributes to uncertainty in the model response to forcing. Finally, we use simulations of the global climate in an idealized aquaplanet model to show that the biases in the climatological Southern Hemisphere circulation do indeed contribute to much of the model spread in the cloud-circulation coupling. We find that for the same 1$^\circ$ latitude poleward shift, simulations with narrower climatological HCs exhibit stronger mid-latitude shortwave cloud radiative warming anomalies than simulations with wider climatological HCs. The shortwave cloud radiative warming anomalies result predominantly from a subsidence warming of the planetary boundary layer, which decreases low-level cloud fraction and is stronger for narrower HCs because of a tighter mean meridional circulation. A comparison of the spread across aquaplanet simulations with that across CMIP5 models suggests that about half of the model uncertainty in the mid-latitude cloud-circulation coupling stems from this impact of the circulation on the large-scale temperature structure of the boundary layer, and thus can be removed by improving the representation of the climatological circulation in models. Therefore, a more realistic representation of the Hadley circulation in models can improve their representation of the linkage between mid-latitude clouds and the atmospheric circulation in the current climate and increase overall confidence in predictions of future climate.

Neodymium (Nd) isotopes have been increasingly used to trace the modern and past ocean circulation. This assumes that seawater Nd isotope ratios (εNd) effectively fingerprint different water masses and approximate expected values from water mass mixing. However, the decoupling of Nd isotopes and Nd concentration (the “Nd paradox”) in the water column, and the lack of understanding of sources and sinks of Nd, restrain our understanding of the “quasi-conservative” behavior of εNd in seawater. Nd is one of the lanthanide rare earth elements (REEs) with similar chemical characteristics that undergo some degree of fractionation. The shale-normalized REE patterns and REE ratios can be used to investigate potential sources/sinks of REEs. Combining REEs with εNd will provide additional information to study REE cycling in the ocean. To better understand the reliability of εNd as a water mass tracer, 17 high-resolution seawater profiles were sampled meridionally in the Southwest Atlantic (GEOTRACES GA02 Leg 3; RRS James Cook 057) and measured for εNd. This region involves the major water masses in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: southward flowing North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), northward flowing Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) and Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). Along the cruise track, there are potential sources (eolian dusts, marginal sediments, oceanic volcanism, and nepheloid layer) that could add external Nd to seawater and disturb the “quasi-conservative” behavior of εNd. Our results show strikingly that the Southwest Atlantic transect confirms “quasi-conservative” behavior of εNd in intermediate and deep water. Our evaluations of Nd isotopic deviations (ΔεNd) from conservative behavior show that out of 198 intermediate and deep samples, 49% of ΔεNd-values are within ± 0.25 εNd units (< analytical error: ± 0.30 εNd units) and 84% of ΔεNd-values are within ± 0.75 εNd units. Potential sources that could add external Nd to seawater from oceanic volcanism and the nepheloid layer do not show impact on seawater εNd. Terrigenous sources of Nd (e.g. eolian dusts from Africa and Patagonia, marginal sediments from South America) show influence on surface/subsurface water εNd but this εNd signature is not transferred to intermediate and deep water. To better understand the conservative vs. non-conservative behavior of REEs in the ocean, the dissolved REE concentrations were analyzed for the 17 seawater profiles in the Southwest Meridional Atlantic Transect (GEOTRACES GA02 Leg 3). The shale-normalized REE patterns are consistent with typical seawater patterns. To investigate whether and how much REE concentrations deviate from conservative water mass mixing, the REE concentration deviations were calculated for the intermediate and deep water. It is shown that within the SAMT, the intermediate and deep water REEs generally reflect water mass mixing and nearly conservative behavior. Along this transect, the potential sources that could add external REEs to seawater are dissolution of REEs from eolian dust to the surface/subsurface water, REEs released from dissolution of Fe-Mn oxides in the oxygen depleted zone, REEs from sediments near the continental margin, and dissolution of REEs from deep sea sediments. REEs and Nd isotopes of most intermediate and deep water masses passing the volcanic Rio Grande Rise (RGR) and Vitória-Trindade Ridge (VTR) do not show influence from RGR and VTR. REEs and Nd isotopes of the bottom water Lower Circumpolar Deep Water (LCDW) and AABW passing the RGR are influenced by dissolved REEs from the deep sea sediments. LCDW and AABW passing the VTR are influenced by dissolved REEs from the deep sea sediments as well as the volcanic VTR. In order to better understand the oceanic Nd cycling in the North Pacific, its sources and sinks in seawater must be better characterized. The high εNd of North Pacific Deep Water (NPDW, ~ −4) has been difficult to reconcile with the eolian inputs as reflected in surface waters (e.g. Jones et al., 2008), which have much lower εNd (~ −10), indicating potential addition of a component from Pacific volcanism. In order to constrain the REE sources in the North Pacific, we measured εNd and REEs of seawater from five stations across the subarctic North Pacific sampled by the Innovative North Pacific Experiment (INOPEX) Cruise SO202 (2009). In the surface water (~10 m), the highest εNd is observed at the station closest to the Aleutian-Kamchatka volcanic margin (Northwest station SO202-5), suggesting higher contribution of external REEs from volcanic ashes compared to the other stations. In the shallow water (100-400 m, depending on location), remineralization of REEs from volcanic ashes prevails over Asian dusts at Northwest station SO202-5 and near Japan stations SO202-44, 41, and 39, whereas remineralization of REEs from Asian dusts prevails over volcanic ashes at the Northeast station SO202-32 in the open ocean of the Alaska Peninsula. From the depths of North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW) to NPDW, seawater εNd and REEs show conservative water mass mixing of NPIW-NPDW. They also show conservative behavior along the water mass transport paths of NPIW and NPDW. Below the depths of NPDW, addition of external REEs is observed in the vertical profiles of εNd and REEs as well as along the transport path of LCDW. The potential sources that add external REEs to the bottom water are (1) sediments on the Kuril-Kamchatka-Aleutian volcanic margin along the LCDW transport path, and (2) sediments on the seafloor, both of which could interact with seawater and modify the seawater εNd and REE signatures.

Para entendermos o papel que as vias de circulação desempenharam na tentativa de dar coesão ao território boliviano, buscamos entender a ocupação do espaço andino desde a chegada dos espanhóis no território pré-boliviano, nas terras altas de Potosi. Também tentamos analisar os caminhos construídos a partir dessa ocupação, seja para o escoamento da prata, seja para o abastecimento da população que orbitava ao redor do complexo mineiro. No decorrer da história da Bolívia independente, a circulação foi um dos motes da tentativa de unificação espacial com o Peru, comandada pelo general Andrés de Santa Cruz, uma vez que, na primeira metade do século XIX, alcançar o litoral boliviano era uma tarefa extremamente difícil, em face da inexistência de técnicas que tornassem menos dispendiosa a transposição da escarpa andina. A guerra com o Chile, no final do século XIX, ainda hoje desperta sentimentos nacionalistas na população boliviana em função da perda de todo o seu território voltado para o Pacífico. A amputação de sua saída para o mar fez com que o governo boliviano exigisse do vencedor Chile a construção de uma estrada de ferro. Esta ligaria o país a um porto no Pacífico, a fim de seu comércio internacional não fosse sufocado e sua economia arruinada, devido a sua condição mediterrânea. A disputa com o Brasil pelo território do Acre levou a Bolívia, mais uma vez, a pensar em uma solução circulatória que permitisse o escoamento da borracha, uma mercadoria então cobiçada no mercado internacional. No acordo entre os dois países, o Brasil se comprometeu a construir uma estrada de ferro para escoar a mercadoria boliviana pelos rios da bacia amazônica. A guerra do Chaco, disputada com o Paraguai, cujo motivo teria sido uma disputa por petróleo, na realidade, foi uma tentativa de o governo boliviano alcançar o Atlântico utilizando o rio Paraguai. A derrota fez com que a Bolívia conseguisse acessar o Oceano Atlântico por intermédio da construção de uma ferrovia entre Santa Cruz de la Sierra e Corumbá, na fronteira com o Brasil, e de lá até o porto de Santos. Além dessa alternativa, a Bolívia também se utilizou do transporte ferroviário para alcançar o Atlântico, via Argentina, chegando até o porto de Buenos Aires. A violenta derrota boliviana na guerra do Chaco abriu cicatrizes que culminaram na Revolução Nacionalista de 1952. O governo nacionalista estatizou as ferrovias e criou uma empresa estatal para cuidar das rodovias da Bolívia, porém, ao incentivar a construção de estradas de rodagem, a ingerência estadunidense inviabilizou a efetiva integração territorial boliviana por vias férreas e, por extensão, a ligação ferroviária entre os oceanos Atlântico e Pacífico, pela união dos portos de Arica no Chile e de Santos no estado de São Paulo. / To understand the role played by the circulation ways so as to provide cohesion to the Bolivian territory, one must understand the occupation of the Andean space since the arrival of the Spanish at the pre-Bolivian territory, in the high lands of Potosi. We have also tried to analize the ways built after such occupation, whether for the flow of silver, or for the provisioning of the population orbiting the mining complex. In the course of independent Bolivias history, circulation was one of the mottos in the search for spatial unification with Peru, commanded by General Andrés de Santa Cruz, seeing that it was such an extremely hard task to reach the Bolivian sea coast in the first half of the 19th century, due to the inexistence of techniques which could make the transposition of the Andean scarp less costly. The war against Chile at the end of the 19th century still arouses nationalistic feelings in the Bolivian people today, for the loss of their whole territory facing the Pacific. The amputation of their exit to the sea made the Bolivian government demand that a railroad connecting Bolivia to a port in the Pacific should be built by the winner Chile. Thus, international trading would not be suffocated and consequently, Bolivian economy would not be ruined by their mediterranean condition. The dispute against Brazil for the territory of Acre once again forced Bolivia to come up with a circulatory solution so as to enable the flow of latex, such a coveted raw material in international markets by then. It was agreed that Brazil would build a railroad for the flow of Bolivian commodities along the Amazon watershed. The Chaco War, whose motto was the dispute for oil against Paraguay, was, in fact, another Bolivian attempt to reach the Atlantic through the Paraguay river. The defeat enabled Bolivia to access the Atlantic after the construction of a railroad connecting Santa Cruz de la Sierra to Corumbá, in the borderline with Brazil, and from that point to the Port of Santos. Besides this alternative, Bolivia also used railways to reach the Atlantic through Argentina, up to the Port of Buenos Aires. Bolivias huge defeat in the Chaco War has left scars which culminated in the nationalistic revolution of 1952. The nationalistic government took over all railways and created a state-owned company to manage Bolivian roads. However, North-American interference and stimulus to the construction of highways precluded an effective integration of the Bolivian territory through railroads and, thus, the railway connection between the Atlantic and the Pacific, uniting the Port of Arica in Chile and the Port of Santos in São Paulo.

No description available.