Detecting structural damage in civil structures through non-destructive means is a growing field in civil engineering. There are many viable methods, but they can often be time consuming and costly; requiring large amounts of data to be collected. By determining which data are the most optimal at detecting damage and which are not the methods can be better optimized. The objective of this thesis was to adapt an existing method of data optimization, used for damage detection in mechanical engineering applications, for use with civil structures. The existing method creates Parameter Signatures based on characteristics from the system being analyzed, from which preferred locations for recording data are determined. For civil structures this method could potentially be used to locate the preferred locations to place accelerometers such that the minimum number of accelerometers is needed to properly detect the location and severity of damage in the structure. This method was first tested on fully analytical computer model structures under perfect conditions to determine its mathematical feasibility with civil structures. It was then tested on data recorded from physical test structures under “real-world” conditions to determine its feasibility as an actual damage detection optimization procedure. Results from the analytical testing show that this is in fact a viable method for determining the preferred sensor positions in civil structures. Furthermore, these results were verified for a variety of excitation types. Physical testing was inconclusive, leading to great insight about what obstacles are impeding this method and should looked at in future research.

The objective of this dissertation is to develop, analyze, and implement optical fiber-based sensors for the nondestructive quantitative evaluation of advanced civil structures. Based on a comparative evaluation of optical fiber sensors that may be used to obtain quantitative information related to physical perturbations in the civil structure, the extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometric (EFPI) optical fiber sensor is selected as the most attractive sensor. The operation of the EFPI sensor is explained using the Kirchhoff diffraction approach. As is shown in this dissertation, this approach better predicts the signal-to-noise ratio as a function of gap length than methods employed previously. The performance of the optical fiber sensor is demonstrated in three different implementations. In the first implementation, performed with researchers in the Civil Engineering Department at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, optical fiber sensors were used to obtain quantitative strain information from reinforced concrete interior and exterior column-to-beam connections. The second implementation, performed in cooperation with researchers at the United States Bureau of Mines in Spokane, Washington, used optical fiber sensors to monitor the performance of roof bolts used in mines. The last implementation, performed in cooperation with researchers at the Turner- Fairbanks Federal Highway Administration Research Center in McLean, Virginia, used optical fiber sensors, attached to composite prestressing strands used for reinforcing concrete, to obtain absolute strain information. Multiplexing techniques including time, frequency and wavelength division multiplexing are briefly discussed, whereas the principles of operation of spread spectrum and optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) are discussed in greater detail. Results demonstrating that spread spectrum and OTDR techniques can be used to multiplex optical fiber sensors are presented. Finally, practical considerations that have to be taken into account when implementing optical fiber sensors into a civil structure environment are discussed, and possible solutions to some of these problems are proposed. / Ph. D.

[pt] As estruturas espaciais tubulares padronizadas vem sendo cada vez mais utilizadas na construção civil brasileira; observa-se porém, que o tipo das ligações que comumente estão presentes nestas construções são as do tipo excêntrica com ponta amassada, decorrentes do baixo custo econômico que estas oferecem. Pouco se sabe sobre o comportamento estrutural destas ligações, já que as normas que geralmente são adotadas para o cálculo das resistências das barras componentes do reticulado não levam em consideração a redução de inércia que é feita nas extremidades destas para a formação deste tipo de ligação. A não consideração da redução da inércia nas extremidades das barras tem levado à constatação de que é cada vez mais freqüente a presença de problemas de instabilidade estrutural que pode levar ao colapso parcial ou até mesmo total da estrutura. Por outro lado ainda existem estudos que comprovem a veracidade das hipóteses de cálculo que foram assumidas para este tipo de ligação. Com o objetivo de melhor compreender este comportamento, são abordados neste trabalho alguns aspectos estruturais e construtivos das estruturas metálicas espaciais, através de uma série de ensaios experimentais. Inicialmente apresenta-se um breve histórico dos sistemas estruturais. Isto é seguido de informações gerais a respeito da classificação das estruturas espaciais e do tipo de ligação mais usadas. A seguir é feito um estudo dos programas existentes na PUC-RIO e que foram utilizados para à análise estrutural da treliça espacial a ser ensaiada. Apresenta-se também um breve roteiro de cálculo para uma cobertura em treliça espacial. Finalmente são apresentados resultados experimentais de testes em escala real de uma estrutura de 12,0 x 12,0 m, avaliando os modos de ruínas presentes. Estes resultados são confrontados com os valores das resistências nominais de projeto seguindo as recomendações de norma. / [en] This work presents an investigation of the structural behaviour of tubular space trusses composed of continuous end flattened members stacked above each other and joined together by a single bolt. One of the main motivations for this work comes from the fact that this structural solution is very commonly used in Brazil. The main reasons for that are the economy achieved in fabrication and the simplicity of erection associated with that structural solution. This solution also proves to be competitive when compared to other commercial systems. On the other hand, the structural design of these trusses are still subjected to some criticism since the loss of stiffness in the bars´ extremities is not taken into account. To enlighten this problem a full-scale experimental programme was performed in a 12m x 12m space structure. The adopted structure consisted of a diagonal on square mesh with top and bottom chord members of 2000mm and 1414mm and a 1500mm mesh height. The aim of the this programme was to investigate the ultimate compression resistance of the structural members taking into account the effect of the flattened ends and the type of connection used. The experiments ranged from tests where all the structural nodes used a single eccentric bolt to others where plated connectors were used in the supports to eliminate second- order moments. The experimental results demonstrated that the ultimate resistance of the structure with the eccentric connections only presented a small reduction when compared to other non-eccentric systems. The tests also confirmed that the flattened end of the members and the geometric characteristics of plated connectors are very significant parameters in the structure´s ultimate behaviour. / [es] Las extructuras espaciales tubulares padronizadas han ganado mayor espacio en la construcción civil brasilera. No obstante, se observa que en estas construcciones, conmúnmente se utilizan uniones tipo excéntrica con punta suavizada, debido a su bajo costo. Poco se sabe sobre el comportamiento extructural de estas uniones, ya que las normas que generalmente se adoptan para el cálculo de las resistencias de las barras que componen el reticulado no consideran la reducción de inercia en las extremidades de las barras para la formación de este tipo de unión. Se ha constantado que al no considerar la reducción de la inercia en las extremidades de las barras aparecen com mayor frecuencia problemas de inestabilidad extructural que pueden llevar al colapso parcial o incluso total de la extructura. Por otro lado, existen estudios que comprueban la veracidad de las hipótesis de cálculo que fueron asumidas para este tipo de unión. Con el objetivo de comprender mejor este comportamiento, se abordan en este trabajo algunos aspectos extructurales y constructivos de las extructuras metálicas espaciales, a través de una serie de ensayos experimentales. Inicialmente se presenta un breve histórico de los sistemas extructurales, con informaciones generales sobre clasificación de las extructuras espaciales y los tipos de unión más usadas. Seguidamente se presentan los programas existentes en la PUC-RIO que fueron utilizados para el análisis extructural de la celosía espacial que sería ensayada. Se presenta también un breve algoritmo para el cálculo para una cobertura en celosía espacial. Finalmente se presentan los resultados experimentales de pruebas en escala real de una extructura de 12,0 x 12,0 n, evaluando los modos de ruínas presentes. Estes resultados se comparan con los valores de las resistencias nominales del proyecto siguiendo las recomendaciones de la norma.

North American civil infrastructures are aging. According to recent (2016) Canadian infrastructure report card, 33% of the Canadian municipal infrastructures are either in fair or below fair condition. The current deficit of replacing fair and poor municipal bridges (covers 26% of bridges) is 13 billion dollars. According to the latest report (2017) by American Society of Civil Engineers, the entire American infrastructure have been given a D+ condition rating. This includes some of the structural elements of infrastructures that pose a significant risk and there is an urgent need for frequent and effective inspection to ensure the safety of people. Visual inspection is a commonly used technique to detect and identify surface defects in bridge structures as it has been considered the most feasible method for decades. However, this currently used methodology is inadequate and unreliable as it is highly dependent on subjective human judgment. This labor-intensive approach for inspection requires huge investment in terms of an arrangement of temporary scaffoldings/permanent platforms, ladders, snooper trucks, and sometimes helicopters. To address these issues associated with visual inspection, the completed research suggests three innovative methods; 1) Combined use of Fuzzy logic and Image Processing Algorithm to quantify surface defects, 2) Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-assisted American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) guideline-based damage assessment technique, and 3) Patent-pending multi-device robotics-based sensor data acquisition system for mapping and assessing defects in civil structures. To detect and quantify subsurface defects such as voids and delamination using a UAV system, another patent-pending UAV-based acoustic method is developed. It is a novel inspection apparatus that comprises of an acoustic signal generator coupled to a UAV. The acoustic signal generator includes a hammer to produce an acoustic signal in a structure using a UAV. An outcome of this innovative research is the development of a model to refine multiple commercially available NDT techniques’ data to detect and quantify subsurface defects. To achieve this, a total of nine 1800 mm × 460 mm reinforced concrete slabs with varying thicknesses of 100 mm, 150 mm and 200 mm are prepared. These slabs are designed to have artificially simulated defects like voids, debonding, honeycombing, and corrosion. To determine the performance of five NDT techniques, more than 300 data points are considered for each test. The experimental research shows that utilizing multiple techniques on a single structure to evaluate the defects, significantly lowers error and increases accuracy compared to that from a standalone test. To visualize the NDT data, two-dimensional NDT data maps are developed. This work presents an innovative method to interpret NDT data correctly as it compares the individual data points of slabs with no defects to slabs with simulated damage. For the refinement of NDT data, significance factor and logical sequential determination factor are proposed. / Graduate / 2020-09-06

A wide range of dynamic systems can be approximated as linear and time invariant, for which a wealth of tools are available to characterize or modify their dynamic characteristics. Experimental modal analysis (EMA) is a procedure whereby the natural frequencies, damping ratios and mode shapes which parameterize vibratory, linear, time invariant systems are derived from experimentally measured response data. EMA is commonly applied in a multitude of applications, for example, to generate experimental models of dynamic systems, validate finite element models and to characterize dissipation in vibratory systems. Recent EMA has also been used to characterize damage or defects in a variety of systems. The Algorithm of Mode Isolation (AMI), presented by Drexel and Ginsberg in 2001, employs a unique strategy for modal parameter estimation in which modes are sequentially identified and subtracted from a set of FRFs. Their natural frequencies, damping ratios and mode vectors are then refined through an iterative procedure. This contrasts conventional multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) identification algorithms, most of which attempt to identify all of the modes of a system simultaneously. This dissertation presents a hybrid multi-input-multi-output (MIMO) implementation of the algorithm of mode isolation that improves the performance of AMI for systems with very close or weakly excited modes. The algorithmic steps are amenable to semi-automatic identification, and many FRFs can be processed efficiently and without concern for ill-conditioning, even when many modes are identified. The performance of the algorithm is demonstrated on noise contaminated analytical response data from two systems having close modes, one of which has localized modes while the other has globally responsive modes. The results are compared with other popular algorithms. MIMO-AMI is also applied to experimentally obtained data from shaker excited tests of the Z24 highway bridge, demonstrating the algorithm's performance on a data set typical of many EMA applications. Considerations for determining the number of modes active in the frequency band of interest are addressed, and the results obtained are compared to those found by other groups of researchers.

[pt] Este trabalho tem como objetivo principal a aplicação do método híbrido dos elementos de contorno a problemas da mecânica da fratura linearmente elástica. São apresentados os desenvolvimentos de várias formulações e os principais aspectos das implementações computacionais referentes a cada uma delas. A consistência mecânica do método híbrido dos elementos de contorno facilita sobremaneira a compreensão dos diversos fatores envolvidos em sua aplicação à mecânica da fratura. Isto ocorre porque o apelo físico do método garante a interpretação adequada dos problemas presentes na análise dos mais diversos fenômenos da mecânica do contínuo. A contribuição mais relevante deste trabalho consiste na determinação de maneira rápida e direta do fator de intensidade de tensão em estruturas bidimensionais da elasticidade plana. Os efeitos de abertura e deslizamento das faces da trinca são considerados a partir da introdução de uma solução fundamental hipersingular, cujo entendimento físico é facilitado devido à consistência variacional do método híbrido. É proposta a utilização de uma função de Green, referente à série de Williams, nos nós do modelo estrutural correspondentes às pontas das trincas. Esta sistemática introduz os fatores de intensidade de tensão, modos I e II, como incógnitas do problema, sendo obtidos a partir da resolução do sistema de equações provenientes do método. Durante todo o desenvolvimento, são mostrados vários exemplos que validam e comprovam a aplicabilidade das formulações propostas, demonstrando a potencialidade do método quando aplicado à mecânica da fratura. / [en] Aim of this work is the application of the hybrid boundary element method to problems of the linear elastic fracture mechanics. Several formulations are introduced and the most relevant aspects of computational implementation are discussed. The mechanical consistency of the hybrid boundary element method enables the adequate mathematical description of the stress field related to a cracked continuum. The main attempt of this dissertation is to develop a computationally simples and fast procedure for the determination of stress intensity factors in two- dimensional elasticity. The effects of opening and sliding of the crack surfaces are considered by means of a hipersingular stress function, which are dealt with adequately in the frame of the variational formulation. It is shown that the stress series proposed by Williams for the local field around a crack tip may be considered as a Green´s function. As a consequence, the stress intensity factors corresponding to both Modes I and II are obtained as primary unknowns of the problem. Several numerical examples are presented in order top validate the formulations proposed. This shows the potentiality of the hybrid boundary element method for dealing with problems of the fracture mechanics. / [es] Este trabajo tiene como objetivo principal la aplicación del método híbrido de los elementos de contorno a problemas de mecánica de fracturas linealmente elásticas. Se describen varias formulaciones y los principales aspectos de su implementación computacional. La consistencia mecánica del método híbrido de los elementos de contorno facilita la comprensión de los diversos factores involucrados en su aplicación a la mecánica de fracturas. Esto ocurre porque el caracter físico del método garantiza la interpretación adecuada de los problemas que se presentan en el análisis de los más diversos fenómenos de la mecánica del contínuo. La contribuición más relevante de este trabajo consiste en la determinación de manera rápida y directa del factor de intensidad de tensión en extructuras bidimensionales de elasticidad plana. Son considerados los efectos de abertura y deslizamiento de las caras de la trinca a partir de la introducción de una solución fundamental hipersingular, cuya comprensión física se facilita debido a la consistencia variacional del método híbrido. Se propone la utilización de una función de Green, de la serie de Williams, en los nodos del modelo extructural correspondiente a las puntas de las trincas. Esta sistemática introduce los factores de intensidad de tensión, modos I y II, como incógnitas del problema, y se obtienen a partir de la resolución del sistema de ecuaciones provenientes del método. Durante todo el desarrollo, se muestran varios ejemplos que evalúan y comprueban la aplicabilidad de las formulaciones propuestas, demostrando la potencialidad del método cuando se aplica a la mecánica de fracturas.