Le procédé d’électro-filage est devenu une technique privilégiée pour la préparation des matériaux nano-fibreux, grâce à sa simplicité de mise en oeuvre, la polyvalence des matières premières utilisées, ainsi que la diversité des structures obtenues. Sa capacité à produire des réseaux fibrillaires, proches de ceux du vivant ont ouvert la voie à d’importantes applications en ingénierie tissulaire. Cette étude a porté sur i) l'élaboration de nano-fibres à base de biopolymères commerciaux par un procédé d’électro-filage, pour des applications en ingénierie tissulaire, ii) leur fonctionnalisation et, iii) l’étude par SANS de la stabilité des chaînes de polymères constituant ces fibres. La stabilité d’un polymère est un facteur important pour la dégradation contrôlée dans les systèmes biologiques. Des études de la stabilité de polystyrène, utilisé ici comme un modèle simple, dans le milieu confiné des nanofibres, ont été élaborés avec la technique de diffusion de neutrons aux petits angles. L’investigation de la conformation des chaînes de polymère dans les nanofibres montre une anisotropie remarquable, en suggérant une forte déformation des chaînes dans la direction axiale des fibres d’au cours de procédé d’électro-filage. La dynamique de relaxation des chaînes a permis d’évaluer leur stabilité et vieillissement dans le milieu confiné des nanofibres. Des fibres biocompatibles à base de poly(-caprolactone) (PCL) ont été électro-filées et optimisées pour obtenir des matériaux nano-structurés et fonctionnalisés en vue d’applications biomédicales. L’introduction par chimie click azide-alcyne de groupes saccharidiques dans le coeur ou en surface des fibres de PCL a été réalisée très efficacement selon deux approches distinctes avant ou après électro-filage. Les caractérisations physico-chimiques et biologiques réalisées sur les différents systèmes ont notamment permis de mettre en évidence la biodisponibilité des sucres à la surface des fibres ainsi que leur capacité à rendre la PCL hydrophile. Ces résultats attestent du potentiel de la chimie click à permettre la fonctionnalisation de fibres de polyesters sans altération de leur structure ouvrant ainsi d’importantes perspectives dans le domaine de l’ingénierie tissulaire. / Electrospinning process has become a leading technique for producing nano-fibrous scaffolds that are highly porous, lighter, and with superior mechanical properties than their bulk equivalents. Structural properties of electrospun fibers closely resemble to the connective cell tissue, making these nonwovens readily employed in medicine and pharmacy. The research study of this thesis focused on bridging the commercially available biopolymers with the tissue engineering applications through multifunctional aspects of carbohydrates and click chemistry coupling. Biocompatible fibers were electrospun from poly(-caprolactone) and further optimized into clickable azido-PCL scaffolds. Their surface-activity was visualized after click coupling of a fluorescent dye onto PCL-based electrospun fibers, while hydrophilicity and bioactivity were achieved by covalent bonding of carbohydrates, enabling specific cell adhesion possibilities of these nonwovens. Selective lectin surface-immobilization revealed the potential of these scaffolds for specific protein adhesion and therefore controlled cell-material interactions. Polymer stability is an important factor for controlled degradation in tissue engineering applications. Small angle neutron scattering studies were carried out to estimate the stability of polystyrene as a model-polymer, its chain conformation in as-spun and thermally annealed electrospun fibers. Notable anisotropy of polymeric chains within the fibers was observed. The terminal relaxation time of the polystyrene was estimated and compared to the theoretical value.

As cumarinas são estruturas interessantes aos olhos da química medicinal, apresentando diversas atividades biológicas sobre os mais variados alvos. Neste trabalho, em um primeiro momento, realizamos a extração com CO2 em meio supercrítico das cumarinas de Pterocaulon balansae, planta nativa do Rio Grande do Sul que apresenta em sua composição grandes quantidades destes compostos. A extração com CO2 supercrítico apresentou rendimentos satisfatórios em massa de sete cumarinas previamente descritas para estas espécies. Dentre estes se destacam os compostos majoritários 7-(2,3-epoxi-3-metil-3-butiloxi)-6-metoxicumarina e 5,6-dimetoxi-7-(2’,3’-epoxi-3-metilbutiloxi) cumarina. Realizamos também a síntese de 4-metilcumarinas através de reação de Pechmann, obtendo o composto LaSOM 77 (7-hidroxi-4-matilcumarina) com excelentes rendimentos, onde realizamos uma diversificação estrutural através da adição de um linker e posteriormente a síntese de triazóis através de “Click Chemistry”. Para tanto, utilizamos uma biblioteca de 35 alcinos disponíveis comercialmente e outros 3 sintetizados em nosso laboratório. Sendo assim, obtivemos uma biblioteca de 38 híbridos cumarina-triazol que apresentaram excelentes rendimentos, em tempos reacionais que variaram entre 20 e 50 minutos de reação sob irradiação de microondas. Os testes biológicos preliminares frente a linhagens cancerígenas indicaram que os compostos sintetizados apresentam potencial utilização como anticancerígenos, sendo ativos frente a linhagens celulares de câncer de pulmão, fígado e mama, apresentando baixa toxicidade em células sadias. A partir das investigações teóricas e experimentais relacionadas à este trabalho foi produzido um artigo de revisão, intitulado “New insights into the chemistry and antioxidante activity of coumarins” está aceito pelo periódico Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. / Coumarins are interesting structures for the medicinal chemistry, because present several biological activities. At first, we performed the supercritical CO2 extraction from Pterocaulon balansae, a plant native from Rio Grande do Sul, which has in its composition large amounts of these compounds. The extraction with supercritical CO2 showed satisfactory yields of seven coumarins previously described for this species. Among these compounds the coumarins 7-(2,3-epoxy-3-methyl-3-butyloxy)-6-methoxycoumarin e 5,6-dimethoxy-7-(2’,3’-epoxy-3-methylbutyloxy) coumarin are the majority compunds. We also performed the synthesis of 4-methylcoumarins using Pechmann reaction, obtaining the compound LaSOM 77 (7-hydroxy-4-methyl-coumarin) in excellent yield and perfomed the structural diversification trougth the addition of a linker and subsequentely synthesis of 1,2,3-triazoles by Click Chemistry. Therefore, was used a colection of 35 commercialy available alkynes and other 3 synthesized in our laboratory to obtain a colection of 38 coumarin-triazole hybrids in excellent yields and time of reaction ranging betwenn 20 and 50 minutes under microwave radiation. Preliminary biological tests against cancerous strains indicated that the synthesized compounds have potential use as anticancer agents against cell lines of lung, liver and breast cancer. From the theorical and experimental data from this work, one review paper was produced: The article is intitled “New insights into the chemistry and antioxidante activity of coumarins” is accepted to the journal "Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry".

Parmi les composants de la biomasse, la lignine est considérée comme l'un des plus prometteurs polymères naturels qui convient à la conversion de la biomasse en valable produits chimiques et matériaux. Malgré une grande quantité de lignine est générée dans l'industrie papetière, seule 2% est exploitée dans l'industrie chimique. La présence de soufre et la grande diversité moléculaire sont les principaux obstacles pour l'utilisation de la lignine. La modification chimique a été reconnue comme un outil pour contourner ces limites. Dans cette thèse, différentes stratégies de synthèse ont été appliquées pour introduire de nouveaux groupes chimiques sur une soude lignine que présents une haute fonctionnalisation de groups hydroxyles. Les dérivés correspondants de lignine ont été utilisés soit pour l’élaboration des matériaux par click polymérisations, soit pour augmenter l’hydrophobicité de la lignine à la fine de faciliter son traitement avec des matrices polymériques. / Among biomass components, lignin is considered one of the most promising natural polymers suitable for the conversion of biomass into renewable added-value chemicals and materials. However, large amount of lignin generated from wood pulping industry is burn as low cost energy source, and only 2% is exploited in the chemical industry. The presence of sulphur moieties and the large molecular diversity are the most reasons impeding the use of lignin as building blocks for the production of chemicals and materials. Chemical modifications have been acknowledged to be an important tool to circumvent these limitations. In the current work, taking advantage of the high hydroxyl groups content of a sulphur free soda lignin (SL), different synthetic strategies have been applied to introduce new chemical groups and used either to produce lignin derivatives suitable for “click” polymerization either to increase lignin hydrophobicity, facilitating its processing in polymeric matrices.

All known living cells contain a complex set of molecular machinery to support their growth and replication. However, the earliest cells must have been much simpler, consisting of a compartment and a genetic material to allow for Darwinian evolution. To study these intermediates, plausible model `protocells' must be synthesized in the laboratory since no fossils remain. Recent work has shown that fatty acids can self-assemble into vesicles that are able to grow and divide through simple mechanisms. However, a self-replicating protocell genome has not yet been developed. Here we discuss studies of systems that allow for the copying of nucleic acid templates without enzymes and how they could be developed into a genetic material.

Les anticorps monoclonaux anti-tumoraux sont produits en cellules eucaryotes. Pour des raisons de temps et de cout, peu de candidats sont sélectionnés après des tests in vitro pour être produits à large échelle et testés in vivo. Pour tester plus d’anticorps plus rapidement, nous souhaitons produire des fragments variables simple chaine (scFv) chez E. coli. et les coupler à un fragment constant Fc par chimie click pour reconstituer des mimes d’immunoglobulines naturelles. Cette production indépendante des fragments est aussi un outil modulaire permettant de combiner rapidement un grand nombre scFv et de Fc différents.La chimie click est basée sur une réaction spécifique et de haut rendement entre un azide et un cyclooctyne. Les fragments ont donc été fonctionnalisés sur des résidus spécifiques (tags) par des composés chimiques pour introduire ces fonctions à leur extrémité. La première étape a consisté à introduire des tags en C-terminal du scFv anti-HER2 4D5 et en N-terminal du Fc d’IgG1 humaine. Les scFv ont été produits en cytoplasme d’E. coli à hauteur d’au moins 100 mg/L puis oxydés in vitro au sulfate de cuivre. Le fragment Fc a été produit classiquement en cellules humaines. Cinq réactions chimiques ou enzymatiques ont été optimisées et comparées en termes de spécificité et de rendement. La conjugaison d’une amine sur un tag glutamine catalysée par la transglutaminase microbienne a donné les meilleurs résultats. Le scFv a ainsi été dérivé par l’azadibenzocyclooctyne et le Fc par l’azide à hauteur de 60-70%. Lorsqu’ils sont mélangés, ces fragments forment un (scFv)2-Fc et un scFv-Fc avec des rendements globals respectifs de 10-20% et 20-30% après optimisation.Les mélanges scFv + Fc après réaction de chimie click se fixent de la même façon que le (scFv)2-Fc eucaryote au récepteur HER2. Il reste désormais à montrer que leur capacité à inhiber la prolifération d’une lignée exprimant ce récepteur est similaire. L’objectif final est d’obtenir une inhibition de croissance tumorale similaire sur des xénogreffes. / Anti-tumoral monoclonal antibodies are currently produced in eukaryotic cells. For cost and time reasons, a limited number of potential candidates are selected after in vitro tests. They are produced at large scale and then tested in vivo. To test more antibodies and more rapidly, we chose to produce single chain variable fragments (scFv) in bacteria, and to couple them to the eukaryotic constant fragment (Fc) thanks to click chemistry to reconstitute immunoglobulin-like compounds. For a given cost, this enables to produce and test in vivo a larger number of clones. This independent production of fragments is also a flexible tool allowing the combination of different Fc isotypes/allotypes with different scFvs.Click chemistry is based on a specific and high-yield reaction between and azide and a cyclooctyne. Therefore, antibody fragments were functionalised on specific residues (tags) by chemical linker so that each part will contain one of these chemical moieties at their extremity. The first step consisted in introducing tags into the anti-HER2 scFv 4D5 C-terminus and human IgG1 Fc N-termini sequences. The scFvs were produced with yields higher than 100 mg/L in the E. coli cytoplasm and in vitro oxidized with copper sulfate. The Fc fragment was classically produced in human cells. Five chemical or enzymatical reactions were optimised and compared in terms of specificity and yield. The coupling between an amine and a glutamine tag catalysed by microbial transglutaminase gave the best results. The scFv fragment was thus functionalised with an azadibenzocyclooctyne and the Fc fragment with an azide at 60-70%. When mixed together, these fragments formed a (scFv)2-Fc and a scFv-Fc with global yields respectively of 10-20% and 20-30% after optimisation.After the click reaction, the scFv + Fc mix binds to the HER2 receptor on the same way as the eukaryotic (scFv)2-Fc in terms of HER2-binding and proliferation inhibition capacity. Now, it must be demonstrated that their proliferation inhibition of a HER2-positive cell line is similar. The final aim is to get a similar tumour growth inhibition on murine xenografts.

The antiviral or anticancer activities of C-5 modified pyrimidine nucleoside analogues validate the need for the development of their syntheses. In the first half of this dissertation, I explore the Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction of allylphenylgermanes with aryl halides in the presence of SbF5/TBAF to give various biaryls by transferring multiple phenyl groups, which has also been applied to the 5-halo pyrimidine nucleosides for the synthesis of 5-aryl derivatives. To avoid the use of organometallic reagents, I developed Pd-catalyzed direct arylation of 5-halo pyrimidine nucleosides. It was discovered that 5-aryl pyrimidine nucleosides could be synthesized by Pd-catalyzed direct arylation of N3-free 5-halo uracil and uracil nucleosides with simple arenes or heteroaromatics in the presence of TBAF within 1 h. Both N3-protected and N3-free uracil and uracil nucleosides could undergo base-promoted Pd-catalyzed direct arylation, but only with electron rich heteroaromatics. In the second half of this dissertation, 5-acetylenic uracil and uracil nucleosides have been employed to investigate the hydrogermylation, hydrosulfonylation as well as hydroazidation for the synthesis of various functionalized 5-vinyl pyrimidine nucleosides. Hydrogermylation of 5-alkynyl uracil analogues with trialkylgermane or tris(trimethylsilyl)germane hydride gave the corresponding vinyl trialkylgermane, or tris(trimethylsilyl)germane uracil derivatives. During the hydrogermylation with triphenylgermane, besides the vinyl triphenylgermane uracil derivatives, 5-[2-(triphenylgermyl)acetyl]uracil was also isolated and characterized and the origin of the acetyl oxygen was clarified. Tris(trimethylsilyl)germane uracil derivatives were coupled to aryl halides but with decent yield. Iron-mediated regio- and stereoselective hydrosulfonylation of the 5-ethynyl pyrimidine analogues with sulfonyl chloride or sulfonyl hydrazine to give 5-(1-halo-2-tosyl)vinyluracil nucleoside derivatives has been developed. Nucleophilic substitution of the 5-(β-halovinyl)sulfonyl nucleosides with various nucleophiles have been performed to give highly functionalized 5-vinyl pyrimidine nucleosides via the addition-elimination mechanism. The 5-(β-keto)sulfonyluracil derivative has also been synthesized via the aerobic difunctionalization of 5-ethynyluracil analogue with sulfinic acid in the presence of catalytic amount of pyridine. Silver catalyzed hydroazidation of protected 2'-deoxy-5-ethynyluridine with TMSN3 in the presence of catalytic amount of water to give 5-(α-azidovinyl)uracil nucleoside derivatives was developed. Strain promoted Click reaction of the 5-(α-azidovinyl)uracil with cyclooctyne provide the corresponding fully conjugated triazole product.

Pas de résumé disponible. / No abstract available.

Un nouveau dendron phénol trialcyne a été développé par analogie avec le dendron phénol triallyle déjà connu. En nous appuyant sur les cœurs dendritiques polyiodés du laboratoire, nous avons obtenu une famille de dendrimères polyalcynes comportant 27, 81 et 243 branches. Des ferrocènes ont ensuite été greffés par chimie « click » à la périphérie de ces dendrimères. La série obtenue permet la reconnaissance électrochimique d’oxo-anions d’intérêt biologique, comme l’ATP, et de cations métalliques. Grâce aux propriétés d’adsorption des grand dendrimères, nous avons obtenu des électrodes de platine modifiées, robustes et recyclables, permettant de réaliser cette reconnaissance. Une série de glycodendrimères comportant 27, 81 et 243 xylopyranosides terminaux a également été synthétisée. Les méthodes de caractérisation de nanoobjets ont été investiguées, et en particulier, les techniques permettant d’obtenir la taille des molécules en solution comme la RMN DOSY et la diffusion dynamique de la lumière (DLS). Enfin, une série de dendrimères robustes comportant 4 à 6 branches alcynes très longues a été développée. Le greffage périphérique par chimie « click » de beta-cyclodextrines méthylées aléatoirement est également rapporté. / A new easily accessible trialkyne phenol dendron has been developed mimicking the already known triallyl phenol dendron. A family of polyalkynyl containing dendrimers with 27, 81 and 243 terminal branches was obtained starting from the classical polyiodo dendritic cores of the laboratory. Ferrocenes were then grafted using “click” chemistry. The dendrimers obtained allowed electrochemical sensing of both biologically interesting oxo-anions like ATP and metallic cations. Robust and recyclable modified platinum electrodes were obtained thank to the adsorption properties of large dendrimers. These electrodes are able to recognize the same ions as the dendrimer in solution. A novel series of glycodendrimers with 27, 81 and 243 modified xylopyranosides termini was synthesized too. The characterization methods for such nanoobjects were investigated, and particularly technics that allow to obtain the size of the molecules like dynamic light scattering (DLS) and DOSY NMR. Finally, a family of robust polyalkynyl containing dendrimers with 4 to 6 enlarged branches was developed. The functionalization with randomly methylated beta-cyclodextrins using “click” chemistry is also reported.

L’Héparane sulfate (HS) est un polysaccharide linéaire et sulfaté présent à la surface des cellules ou dans le milieu extracellulaire des tissus animaux. Le long des chaines d'HS, des régions présentant une densité de charge négative élevée (domaines S) alternent avec des régions plus faiblement chargées (domaines A). Différents motifs SAS sont ainsi exposés à la surface des cellules et permettent des interactions spécifiques avec de nombreuses protéines comme l’interféron gamma (INF-γ). Cette cytokine interagit avec haute affinité avec les chaines d'HS, ce qui module son activité in vivo (accumulation et localisation tissulaire, clairance sanguine). Pour moduler l’activité de l’INF-γ en inhibant ses interactions avec les chaines d'HS de la surface des cellules, nous avons entrepris la synthèse de mimes de motifs SAS, dans lesquels des fragments synthétiques de domaines S sont liés par un espaceur de longueur modulable. Pour effectuer cette conjugation, nous avons choisi d'utiliser deux types de chimie click la "CuAAC" et la "ligation oxime". Cette stratégie a nécessité de mettre au point des fonctionnalisations orthogonales des extrémités réductrices et non réductrices d'oligosaccharides synthétiques. Nous avons mis au point les réactions sur un disaccharide modèle dérivé du cellobiose, puis les avons transférées à la modification d'un tetrasaccharide synthétique d'HS. Dans ce travail, nous avons optimisé deux réactions clef : une alkylation anomérique dans l’eau et une allylation de fonction alcool dans des conditions neutres / Heparan sulfate (HS) is a linear polysaccharide found in animal tissues at the cell surface or in the extracellular matrix. HS chains display alternating highly negatively charged regions (S) and less charged ones (A). SAS domains with different topologies can thus be exposed at the cell surface with the aim of interacting specifically with different proteins. Gamma interferon (INF-γ) is a cytokine that binds tightly to HS chains. This interaction allows controlling numerous bioactivities of the cytokine (accumulation and location in tissues as well as blood clearance). The discovery of HS fragment able to modulate the activity of IFN-γ could open the way to new innovative therapeutics. To this aim we launched a program aiming at synthesizing mimetic of the SAS motifs found in HS. We devised a strategy allowing linking two synthetic S fragments of HS through a spacer. To this aim we selected two click chemistry reactions: the "CuAAC" triazole formation and "oxime ligation". To implement this strategy, we optimized, on a disaccharide model derived from cellobiose, a methodology allowing the functionalization of the reducing and non-reducing end of synthetic oligosaccharides by to orthogonal reactive functions. Then we extended the methodology to a HS tetrasaccharide fragment. In this work, we optimized two key reactions: an anomeric alkylation in water and a hydroxyl allylation in neutral condition

Inhibition of enzymes in the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway (IBP) plays an important role in the treatment of bone diseases and lowering cholesterol. The IBP begins with the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase catalyzing the conversion of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) to mevalonic acid. Mevalonic acid is then converted to isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) via the intermediate mevalonate-5-diphosphate. Three molecules of IPP are joined by the enzyme farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FDPS), which yields the intermediate farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP). FPP is an important substrate and represents the branch point in the pathway. Compounds which disrupt this pathway at FDPS include risedronate, lovastatin, and zoledronate. It is believed these compounds express their pharmacological effects on a further downstream enzyme. Further downstream from FDPS the IBP includes the key enzymes geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGDPS), which is responsible for the production of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) and necessary for protein prenylation of the proteins Ras, Rho, and Rab. The second key enzyme is geranylgeranyl transferase II (GGTase II), which is responsible for the transfer of GGPP to Rab proteins. Rab proteins, which play an essential role for both protein secretion and trafficking, are of great interest as a therapeutic target for the bone disease multiple myeloma. Multiple myeloma is a disorder of malignant plasma cells, characterized by the overproduction of monoclonal protein, antibodies, or light chains, which can ultimately thicken the blood. Targeting the prevention of geranylgeranylation of the Rab proteins by the enzyme GGTase II can happen through two different strategies. The first would be an indirect route, which would aim to inhibit the enzymes upstream from GGTase II. This could include the enzymes HMG-CoA reductase, FDPS, and GGDPS. Drugs that inhibit the earlier steps in the IBP indirectly prevent protein geranylgeranylation but they also limit formation of other key processes further downstream. The second approach would be a direct inhibition of the enzyme responsible for protein prenylation, GGTase II. There are very few know inhibitors of GGTase II. One such inhibitor is a carboxyphosphonate 3-PEHPC, a mimic of the bisphosphonate risedronate. Unfortunately, 3-PEHPC does not display an attractive potency. Efforts to develop a more potent inhibitor of the enzyme GGTase II, have focused on the preparation of a family of carboxyphosphonates containing a triazole core, and these compounds were prepared via click chemistry. Their activity has been studied, but the salts that were successfully made were ultimately inactive in comparison to 3-PEHPC. Previous attempts at forming isoprene-containing triazole carboxyphosphonates, as isoprene chains were shown to help increase activity towards GGTase II, proved difficult and unsuccessful. Focus was then switched to alteration of isoprene bisphosphonate triazoles as GGDPS inhibitors in attempts to increase activity towards this enzyme. The biological activity of these bisphosphonates was found to be selective and potent inhibitors of GGDPS, with little to no activity towards the GGTase II enzyme. In an effort to develop more potent inhibitors, isoprene triazole carboxyphosphonates were produced in an attempt to enhance the biological activity towards GGTase II. Along with forming a family of isoprene bisphosphonate compounds to increase the biological activity towards GGDPS in comparison to other previously made bisphosphonates. These carboxyphosphonate and bisphosphonate compounds were prepared through click chemistry and tested for their activity toward GGTase II and GGDPS.