This dissertation applied the social psychological research on deception to a counseling situation. The social psychological literature on deception has demonstrated that judges are notextremely accurate in their evaluations of deception. The majority of investigators in this arena have reported that judges of deception have difficulty exceeding accuracy levels which could be obtained merely by chance. Furthermore, researchers have had difficulty identifying cues to deception which could benefit judges when making their assessments.It seems that the ability of counselors to detect deception would be an important facet of their repertoire--especially in situations where the counselor interacts with clients who may be more prone to lying (e.g.. substance abusers, perpetrators of family violence, criminals, and malingerers). If counselors are accurate in their determinations of client deception at levels of accuracy only slightly greater than chance (as the social psychological literature implies), then the entire assessment process might be undermined.This study was an examination of counselors' abilities to detect deception among their clients, the verbal and nonverbal cues to which counselors attend in making their assessments, and how client deception effects a counselor's psychological assessments. Four major findings were obtained. First, a factor analytic study revealed that counselors believe they attend to four general groups of verbal and nonverbal cues when suspecting a client of deception: (1) Stationary Cues of a Client's Face and Body, (2) Movements of a Client's Limbs, (3) the Quality/Style of a Client's Communications, and (4) the Content/Expression of a Client's Communications. Second, counselors in this study were accurate in their assessments of honest and deceptive clients at levels significantly greater than chance (85% overall accuracy). Third, this study was unable to identify cues which benefit counselors in making accurate assessments of client deception and/or honesty. Fourth, the accuracy of a counselor's psychological assessments were not affected by client deception. Results are discussed in relation to the social psychological literature on deception and implications for the profession of counseling psychology. / Department of Counseling Psychology and Guidance Services

One purpose of this study was to present a theoretical model for research in counseling, involving matching counselor and client variables, expressed as: Counselor effectiveness is a function of the interaction of counselor characteristics and client characteristics. The second purpose, examination of the interaction effect of counselor and client variables in the counseling relationship, was an application of the model. The counselor and client characteristic selected was dogmatism; and the experimental problem was to determine if the overall effectiveness of a counseling interaction is significantly influenced by matching counselor and client on dogmatism level.Volunteers were solicited from seven classes of a graduate level counseling course taught concurrently in a counselor education program for Americans stationed with the United States Military in West Germany. This sample was administered the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, Form E, to determine dogmatism level for matching counselor-client dyads. The mean of the total sample of scores obtained on this scale, 127.1, divided the sample into two groups, 72 low and 73 high dogmatic subjects.Based on the scores from this instrument, the 145 subjects were randomly matched with persons of either similar or dissimilar dogmatism levels according to the high and low dogmatic pools in each class. In the matching procedure, the subjects were also randomly assigned to one of two roles, counselor or client. This procedure produced four different dyad-type groups:counselor low dogmatic / client low dogmatic; (2) counselor low dogmatic / client high dogmatic; (3) counselor high dogmatic / client low dogmatic;(4) counselor high dogmatic / client high dogmatic.One week after the initial testing for dogmatism levels, the students were again asked to voluntarily participate in an experimental study. From these 109 male and female volunteers, 54 dyads formed by the earlier matching procedure were given audio-cassette tapes with their assigned roles and instructions regarding these roles. They then taped a 30 minute counseling session. After two dyads were deselected for statistical purposes, there were thirteen dyads in each of the four dyad-type groups. Subjects were debriefed following the experiment and anonymity was guarded throughout the study.To investigate counselor effectiveness, the Gross Facilitative Interpersonal Functioning Scale was used to rate counseling effectiveness. Four male and five female raters were trained in the use of the scale. Three 3-minute segments from each of the 30 minute taped sessions were rated from three master tapes, three raters per tape. Criteria were specified for the 3-minute segments and the recording of the master tapes.Analyses of the three hypotheses of the study, using a two-way analysis of variance, showed no main effect significance and a significant interaction effect. Analysis of the interaction effect and additional post hoc analysis indicated a significant interaction effect based on similarity of dogmatism levels in counselor-client dyads when compared to dissimilarly matched counselor-client dyads.When the conclusions of the study were viewed in the context of the theoretical model, it appeared that the matching model may be a useful construct for future research in counseling. In view of the problem of this study, the findings indicated that counselor effectiveness maybe a function of the interaction of similar counselor and client dogmatism levels and not a function of a particular dogmatism level in either counselor or client. If supported by further research, the implication of this finding is that counseling effectiveness might be enhanced by considering counselor and client level of dogmatism when client assignments are made and by matching counselor and client on dogmatism level.

Attribution theory provides a rich foundation of literature addressing how individuals infer causes of behavior. While a great deal of marital therapists have utilized attribution theory to examine dysfunctional patterns of couples, no research to date has examined therapists' own attributions. The purpose of this study was to examine therapists' causal explanations, or attributions, for the difficulties of a marital dyad.One hundred thirty masters and doctoral level students completed the Causal Dimension Scale after viewing a videotape of a couple in an initial interview for therapy. Each subject was randomly assigned to one of three conditions when viewing the videotape: (1) Empathy induction for the wife; (2) empathy induction for the husband; or (3) a control group.Results indicated that empathy instructions did not significantly affect subjects' causal explanations for the couple's problems. Additionally, there was no relationship between empathy-induction and the subsequent prognosis for each spouse. While empathy instructions did not significantly affect therapist prognoses, there were gender differences among therapists and their prognoses. In general, female observers rated the prognosis for therapeutic gain for both the husband and wife higher than did male observers; however, the only significant difference between male and female observers was on the prognosis for therapeutic gain for the husband. Finally, another influential variable affecting therapist prognosis was the video scenario. The prognosis for therapeutic gain for both the husband and the wife was judged to be higher when he/she was the "pursuer" who was upset with the other spouse for spending too much time at work with an opposite-sex co-worker. Implications of this study for marital therapists were discussed. Additionally, limitations as well as suggestions for further research in this area were noted and discussed. Further investigation is needed to examine possible therapist biases in working with couples. / Department of Counseling Psychology and Guidance Services

This thesis examines demographic data from 1358 clients from a mental health center in Anderson, Indiana in terms of the client's discharge record. It was hypothesized that there would be demographic data identified that would increase the therapist's ability to predict those most likely to drop from therapy. Support was obtained for this hypothesis, suggesting the client's socioeconomic status as the most reliable source of dropout identification.It was also hoped that by incorporating the cooperation of therapists in completing a questionnaire, particular therapist behaviors would be identified as effective tools in returning a dropout back to therapy. Therapist's demographic data were also to be examined in an attempt to suggest characteristics that may dispose a client toward premature termination. Unfortunately, obtaining the cooperation of the therapists proved more difficult than anticipated. Possible explanations were discussed in the transcript. Future research directions are also discussed.

An ongoing therapeutic concern has been effectiveness of treatment (success and satisfaction). Mahalik and Kivlighan (1988) suggested that by examining the fit between type of counseling environment and personality type, reasons for satisfaction or dissatisfaction can be better understood. Research in this area, however, is limited. The present study examined the congruence between an individual's personality and the counseling environment, using Holland's model of personenvironment interaction to examine this relationship. This study also explored the underutilization of and dissatisfaction with counseling by certain Holland personality types and the congruence of clientcounselor environment interaction as an explanation of male underutilization of counseling.Ninety four students from Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana, participated in this study. Participants observed a videotape illustrating a particular counseling environment and completed four questionnaires: 1) the Self-Directed Search; 2) the Expectations About Counseling-Brief Form; 3) the Attitudes Toward Counseling; and 4) the Perception of Counseling Environment. The following hypotheses were tested: (hypothesis 1) Scores on Holland's typology will predict group membership (male and female). a) Artistic and Social scores will relate positively to female group membership. b) Realistic, Investigative, and Enterprising scores will relate positively to male group membership. (hypothesis 2) Scores on Holland's typology and gender will predict attitudes toward counseling. a) Realistic, Investigative, and Conventional scores will relate negatively to more favorable attitudes toward counseling. b) Social and Artistic scores will relate positively to more favorable attitudes toward counseling. c) Female status will relate positively to more favorable attitudes toward counseling. (hypothesis 3) Scores on Holland's typology and gender will predict perception of counseling environment. a) Realistic, Investigative, and Conventional scores and male status will relate positively to a more favorable perception of the Self-Help (more structured, less personally interactive) type counseling environment. b) Social and Artistic scores and female status will relate positively to a more favorable perception of the Social/Interactive (more abstract, more personally interactive) type counseling environment. Analyses included stepwise discriminant analysis predicting group membership, stepwise multiple regression analyses predicting gender, certain Holland types, and perception of counseling environment, and a 2 x 2 analysis of variance to analyze the interaction between gender and type of counseling environment.As expected, scores on Holland's typology predicted group membership. Results of the multiple regression analyses generally predicted attitudes toward counseling and perception of counseling environment. The interaction between gender and type of counseling environment was significant with females rating the Social/Interactive type counseling environment more positively than the Self-Help type counseling environment and males rating the Self-Help type counseling environment more positively than the Social/Interactive type of counseling environment. Implications of these findings and limitations and recommendations for future research are discussed. / Department of Counseling Psychology and Guidance Services

This descriptive study was directed toward counselor perceived usefulness of client ego level assessment in the counseling process. The specific intention of the study was to determine if counselors in training would use, and find useful, a differential counseling methodology that proposed specific psychotherapy models correlated to the client's pre-therapy ego level assessment.The subjects for the research were drawn from counselors in training, enrolled in the M.A. and Ed.D. programs at the Ball State University Department of Counseling Psychology and Guidance Services. The sample counselor population consisted of 31 counselors who agreed to participate in the study after being selected randomly.Following a review of literature related to differential counseling research, the Loevinger-Wessler Ego Development Inventory was selected to administer to clients presenting themselves for psychological counseling at the Ball State University Practicum Clinic during Spring Quarter, 1976. This instrument was administered to all clients prior to intake procedures. The results of the client ego level assessment as well as proposed psychotherapy models for the individual client data were made available to the appropriate counselors for treatment of randomly selected clients. During the final week of Spring Quarter, 19?6, the sample counselor population were asked to respond to a researcher designed questionnaire of 22 items, as well as the Loevinger-Wessler Ego Development Inventory. The questionnaire was designed to assess the counselor's perceptions of the use and usefulness of the client ego level data. The Loevinger-Wessler Ego Development Inventory assessment was to determine if any correlation existed between a counselor's ego level assessment and their use or non-use of the client ego level data. Additionally, the Loevinger-Wessler Ego Development Inventory was used to provide one counselor main effect factor for a statistical model using multivariate analysis of qualitative data to identify factors that contribute significantly as being able to predict which counselor variables would cause-counselor use of client ego level data in the counseling process.These data were collected and reported in a descriptive context, with the responses to questionnaire items being reported by number and percentage. The contingency model using multivariate analysis of qualitative data was tested for goodness of fit, and statistical conclusions were drawn. The conclusions drawn from this study included:1. Of the total sample counselor population, 77.4% of the respondents reported using the proposed therapy models at least /4 of the counseling time or more. The counselor population appeared to be willing to use the proposed treatment models, although their preferred psychotherapy orientation may have been other than the proposed therapy models.2. Of the total sample counselor population, 93.5% of the respondents reported the proposed therapy models for their clients as being useful 34 or more of the counseling time, indicating that the sample counselor population viewed the client ego level data and proposed therapy models as being worthwhile methodology for differential counseling. 3. The respondents reported that in comparison to their total client population for whom there was no preassessment data available, 25.9% reported more therapy progress for those clients for whom the client ego level data was available. The majority of the sample counselor population reported about the same progress for their entire client population. The conclusion was reached that a trend exists for this differential counseling strategy as being helpful for client therapy progress. 4. The conclusion was drawn that advanced or beginning client assignment for counselors in training in the sample population was not a significant variable in determining which group of counselors made more use of the client ego level data. 5. The conclusion was drawn that advanced or beginning client assignment for counselors in training in the sample population was not a significant variable in determining which group of counselors perceived the client ego level data as useful. 6. The conclusion was drawn that the variables of counselor ego level or counselor client assignment are equally effective in predicting counselor. 7. The conclusion was drawn that there were no significant differences in use of client ego level data between the two counselor ego level assessment groups.

This thesis presents three essays on audit quality tied up by a common thread: the implication of closeness in auditor-client relationship on audit quality and beyond. In Chapter II, I investigate the implications of close auditor-client relationships arising as time passes on clients’ operating decisions. I find long auditor tenure constrains clients’ discretion in accrual reporting, which in turn prompts firms to resort to real activity management if they are under pressure to achieve earnings targets. For a given length of auditor tenure, the presence of auditor industry expertise does not affect the association between tenure and clients’ engagement in real activity management. These findings highlight an unintended consequence of long auditor tenure and therefore contribute to the on-going debate concerning the merits and shortcomings of mandatory audit firm rotation. In Chapter III and IV, we examine the implications of close auditor-client relationships arising from economic bonding on audit quality reflected from clients’ accrual reporting and auditors’ going-concern decisions. In Chapter III, we find a significantly positive association between fee dependence and abnormal accruals prior to the passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (hereafter SOX), but not in the post-SOX period, suggesting that SOX has enhanced non Big-4’s ability to withstand client pressure arising from fee dependence. These results suggest strong economic bonding between auditors and clients may impair audit quality among smaller auditors, and tightening auditors’ external litigation exposures enhances small auditors’ abilities to withstand client pressure. In Chapter IV, we find that even for firms that are most targeted by SOX, auditors do not allow economic bonding to affect their going-concern decisions in either the pre- or the post-SOX period. These findings thus suggest potential litigation risks faced by auditors in the event of failures to warn the public about their clients’ severe financial distress prior to bankruptcy are high enough to deter auditors from compromising their independence in formulating going-concern decisions. In conclusion, audit quality is affected by closeness in the auditor-client relationship and regulatory intervene may be needed depending on specific setting in terms of auditor type and auditing decisions. / Accounting

Masters Research - Master of Philosophy (Architecture) / The widening gap between architects and clients and the associated problems in the management of their relationship have long been recognised by practitioners and researchers alike. Researchers tend to develop prescriptive models to provide some overall systematic strategy to those seeking guidance. Such models assume that the architect-client relationship can be systematically structured which is a highly optimistic, if not unrealistic view of the situation. An emerging trend has been to develop descriptive models to describe behavioural characteristics of successful and unsuccessful relationships based on observations of ‘real world’ practice. Such descriptive models indicate the significance of understanding the complexities of the social environment in which the architect-client relationship is within. This research built upon the work of past descriptive models by exploring the architect-client relationship on house projects with a focus on the client’s voice. It is positioned within an interdisciplinary approach drawing from sociological and psychological perspectives to further our understanding of this built environment industry problem. Sixty-nine percent of architects in Australia spend some of their work time on house projects and therefore improvements in this area can have significant impact on a considerably large portion of the profession. Habitus theory borrowed from sociology highlighted that the nature of architecture as a specialised activity places architects within an architectural habitus, distinguishing architects from clients who are not trained in the architectural field. An underlying premise of this study was that a mismatch between the architect and client’s habituses occurs as they enter into a relationship on the house project. This phenomenon was termed habitus shock, referring to the client’s experience of disorientation as they are confronted with an unfamiliar architectural habitus on the project. Culture shock theory was examined for its contribution to explain the process to which the client adjusts to the unfamiliar environment during habitus shock. The habitus shock model proposed that the client may achieve learning during habitus shock and it is this client learning that leads to successful relationships. Using the qualitative approach underpinned by the constructivist perspective for data collection and analysis, eight in-depth interviews were conducted across five case studies of successful architect-client relationships. The narrative inquiry approach was used to establish the extent to which habitus shock occurred and to describe the stages involved in the client’s adjustment process during habitus shock. The findings indicate that habitus shock occurred on all five case studies, which resulted in client learning, enabling clients to function with competency in the unfamiliar environment. Client learning achieved during habitus shock was directly linked to the amount of difficulty experienced. This study has refined our understanding of the architect-client relationship on house projects by exploring more deeply client behaviour and the ways in which clients successfully deal with difficulties on house projects rather than simply identifying the uncertainties and conflicts that occur on projects. The findings demonstrate that client learning during habitus shock is a characteristic of successful relationships. One of the most significant outcomes of this study is that it demonstrated the potential to facilitate client learning during habitus shock to contribute to the development of successful architect-client relationships. It also indicates the potential for further development of the model and methodology by suggesting potential areas for future research.

Masters Research - Master of Philosophy (Architecture) / The widening gap between architects and clients and the associated problems in the management of their relationship have long been recognised by practitioners and researchers alike. Researchers tend to develop prescriptive models to provide some overall systematic strategy to those seeking guidance. Such models assume that the architect-client relationship can be systematically structured which is a highly optimistic, if not unrealistic view of the situation. An emerging trend has been to develop descriptive models to describe behavioural characteristics of successful and unsuccessful relationships based on observations of ‘real world’ practice. Such descriptive models indicate the significance of understanding the complexities of the social environment in which the architect-client relationship is within. This research built upon the work of past descriptive models by exploring the architect-client relationship on house projects with a focus on the client’s voice. It is positioned within an interdisciplinary approach drawing from sociological and psychological perspectives to further our understanding of this built environment industry problem. Sixty-nine percent of architects in Australia spend some of their work time on house projects and therefore improvements in this area can have significant impact on a considerably large portion of the profession. Habitus theory borrowed from sociology highlighted that the nature of architecture as a specialised activity places architects within an architectural habitus, distinguishing architects from clients who are not trained in the architectural field. An underlying premise of this study was that a mismatch between the architect and client’s habituses occurs as they enter into a relationship on the house project. This phenomenon was termed habitus shock, referring to the client’s experience of disorientation as they are confronted with an unfamiliar architectural habitus on the project. Culture shock theory was examined for its contribution to explain the process to which the client adjusts to the unfamiliar environment during habitus shock. The habitus shock model proposed that the client may achieve learning during habitus shock and it is this client learning that leads to successful relationships. Using the qualitative approach underpinned by the constructivist perspective for data collection and analysis, eight in-depth interviews were conducted across five case studies of successful architect-client relationships. The narrative inquiry approach was used to establish the extent to which habitus shock occurred and to describe the stages involved in the client’s adjustment process during habitus shock. The findings indicate that habitus shock occurred on all five case studies, which resulted in client learning, enabling clients to function with competency in the unfamiliar environment. Client learning achieved during habitus shock was directly linked to the amount of difficulty experienced. This study has refined our understanding of the architect-client relationship on house projects by exploring more deeply client behaviour and the ways in which clients successfully deal with difficulties on house projects rather than simply identifying the uncertainties and conflicts that occur on projects. The findings demonstrate that client learning during habitus shock is a characteristic of successful relationships. One of the most significant outcomes of this study is that it demonstrated the potential to facilitate client learning during habitus shock to contribute to the development of successful architect-client relationships. It also indicates the potential for further development of the model and methodology by suggesting potential areas for future research.

Thesis (Psy. D.)--Wheaton College, 2005. / Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 66-70).