Les mycotoxines sont des métabolites secondaires des moisissures qui peuvent naturellement contaminer de nombreuses denrées alimentaires, notamment les céréales. Dans les travaux de thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés à deux mycotoxines majeures produites par des champignons du genre Fusarium, le Déoxynivalénol (DON) et la Fumonisine (FB). Les objectifs de la thèse ont été de déterminer les effets individuels et combinés d’une contamination en DON et FB chez le porc, une espèce cible et sensible aux mycotoxines. Les effets sur les fonctions immunitaires lors d’un challenge antigénique ainsi que sur les fonctions intestinales ont été évalués. Par ailleurs, dans le cadre d’un partenariat avec un industriel, nous avons évalué in vivo les effets de méthodes de détoxification par biotransformation et ciblant spécifiquement ces deux toxines. Chez le porc, l’ingestion d’aliments contaminés avec de faibles doses de mycotoxines (DON, 3 mg/kg ; FB, 6 mg/kg) a provoqué des lésions tissulaires (foie, reins et poumons) et a fortement altéré la mise en place d’une réponse immunitaire spécifique de l’antigène (expression des cytokines, prolifération des lymphocytes et anticorps spécifiques). Les animaux ont été significativement plus affectés après la consommation du régime co-contaminé, et l’interaction a pu être considérée comme additive. De plus, les paramètres intestinaux examinés ont révélé des changements dans la morphologie, dans le profil de sécrétion des cytokines et dans l’adhésion cellulaire. L’interaction des deux toxines a pu ici être caractérisée comme moins qu’additive. Les approches de détoxification biologique proposées par l’industriel étaient basées sur la transformation par voie enzymatique du DON et des FB, à partir d’un microorganisme entier et d’une enzyme respectivement. La stratégie d’élimination des FB a suscité un intérêt plus important étant donné que cette méthode est non commercialisée et en cours de développement. Ainsi, la toxicité du produit d’hydrolyse de la FB1 (mycotoxine principale de la famille des FB) obtenu initialement par traitement enzymatique, a été comparée in vivo à celle de la molécule mère la FB1. Les résultats ont montré que l’hydrolyse de la FB1 réduisait fortement la toxicité hépatique et intestinale chez les porcelets. L’expérimentation animale avec le DON et la FB, seuls ou en combinaison a ensuite été reproduite afin de déterminer l’efficacité d’hydrolyse de ce procédé chez le porc après incorporation de l’enzyme dans les aliments contaminés. Dans ces aliments, le microorganisme entier ciblant le DON avait également été inclus. La nette diminution du marqueur d’exposition des FB et la neutralisation partielle ou totale des effets ont suggéré que le procédé avait fortement réduit la biodisponibilité des FB dans le tractus gastro-intestinal. Cette observation a aussi été en partie confirmée pour l’approche de dégradation du DON. La biotransformation par voie enzymatique des mycotoxines représente ainsi une stratégie biotechnologique prometteuse dans la lutte contre ces contaminants. / Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that are natural contaminants of several commodities, in particular cereals. In the present work, we focused on two major mycotoxins produced by the Fusarium genus, Deoxynivalenol (DON) and Fumonisin (FB). The main objectives of the thesis were to determine the toxic effects of individual and combined DON and FB contamination in pig, a target species highly sensitive to mycotoxins. The effects on the immune functions following an antigenic challenge and also on the intestinal functions were evaluated. Besides, within the framework of an industrial partnership, we evaluated in vivo the effects of detoxifying methods by biotransformation and targeting specifically these two toxins. In pigs, ingestion of contaminated feeds with low doses of mycotoxins (DON, 3 mg/kg ; FB, 6 mg/kg) triggered tissular lesions (liver, kidneys and lungs) and strongly impaired the establishment of the antigenic immune response (cytokines expression, lymphocytes proliferation and specific antibodies). Animals consuming the cocontaminated diet were more affected and the interaction could be considered as additive. In addition, changes in morphology, in profile of cytokines secretion and in cell adhesion were observed at intestinal level. The interaction here could be characterized as less than additive. The biological detoxification approaches proposed by the industrial were based on the transformation by enzymatic way of DON and FB, from intact microorganism and enzyme respectively. We paid a particular attention to the strategy of FB removal as this method is not marketed and still in development. Therefore, the toxicity of the hydrolysis product of FB1 (major mycotoxin in the FB group) initially obtained by enzymatic way, was compared in vivo to the toxicity of the parent compound FB1. Results showed that the hydrolysis of FB1 strongly reduced the toxicity in piglets at intestinal and hepatic levels. The animal experiment with DON and FB, alone or in combination was then repeated in order to determine in pigs the hydrolysis efficiency of this process when enzyme was incorporated in contaminated feeds. In these feeds, the intact microorganism toward DON was also included. The marked decrease of the biomarker of exposure to FB and the partial or total counteraction of the effects suggested that the process had greatly reduced the FB bioavailability in the gastrointestinal tract. This observation was also in part confirmed for the method degrading DON. The biotransformation method of mycotoxins by enzymatic way represents therefore a promising biotechnological strategy in the control of these contaminants.

The overall efficiency of plants to remediate soils contaminated by metals depends on their growth ability especially on soils with low-fertility. For twelve weeks, the ability of Psoralea pinnata to grow well and remove chromium and iron from artificially contaminated soil was tested. The concentrations of chromium and iron in two soils obtained from different sources namely, University of South Africa premises (US) and commercial potting soil (PS) were 80 ppm, 130ppm, 180ppm, 230ppm, 280ppm, 330ppm, 380pp, 430ppm and 480ppm. Psoralea pinnata was transplanted into the contaminated soils and the experiments were watered daily to maintain 70% moisture at field capacity in a greenhouse. Shoot height and root length of Psoralea pinnata before and after planting were measured. Other parameters that were measured were number of leaves, wet shoot and dry weights, and wet root and dry weights. The growth of Psoralea pinnata, after 12 weeks of experimentation was noticeably affected by the concentrations of chromium and iron in the soil. The percentage increases in shoot height of Psoralea pinnata in the PS Soil (C-PS, 48cm from initial shoot height of 12.6cm) treatments were generally higher than the increases in the US Soil (C-US, 45.2cm from initial shoot height of 12.8cm) treatments. Psoralea pinnata in the (US) treatments accumulated Fe (50.02 ppm) from the soil more than Cr (32.38ppm). In the (PS) treatments, Psoralea pinnata also accumulated more Fe (60.57 ppm) than Cr (38.34 ppm). In the experiments containing both Fe and Cr, the US treatments with 40 ppm each of Cr and Fe, chromium was initially mostly accumulated by Psoralea pinnata (68%). At higher concentrations (320 ppm) of the combined metals (Cr and Fe) treatment, more Fe (55%) was accumulated in Psoralea pinnata. This study however showed that Psoralea pinnata may not be an efficient phytoextraction plant for hyperaccumulation. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

The overall efficiency of plants to remediate soils contaminated by metals depends on their growth ability especially on soils with low-fertility. For twelve weeks, the ability of Psoralea pinnata to grow well and remove chromium and iron from artificially contaminated soil was tested. The concentrations of chromium and iron in two soils obtained from different sources namely, University of South Africa premises (US) and commercial potting soil (PS) were 80 ppm, 130ppm, 180ppm, 230ppm, 280ppm, 330ppm, 380pp, 430ppm and 480ppm. Psoralea pinnata was transplanted into the contaminated soils and the experiments were watered daily to maintain 70% moisture at field capacity in a greenhouse. Shoot height and root length of Psoralea pinnata before and after planting were measured. Other parameters that were measured were number of leaves, wet shoot and dry weights, and wet root and dry weights. The growth of Psoralea pinnata, after 12 weeks of experimentation was noticeably affected by the concentrations of chromium and iron in the soil. The percentage increases in shoot height of Psoralea pinnata in the PS Soil (C-PS, 48cm from initial shoot height of 12.6cm) treatments were generally higher than the increases in the US Soil (C-US, 45.2cm from initial shoot height of 12.8cm) treatments. Psoralea pinnata in the (US) treatments accumulated Fe (50.02 ppm) from the soil more than Cr (32.38ppm). In the (PS) treatments, Psoralea pinnata also accumulated more Fe (60.57 ppm) than Cr (38.34 ppm). In the experiments containing both Fe and Cr, the US treatments with 40 ppm each of Cr and Fe, chromium was initially mostly accumulated by Psoralea pinnata (68%). At higher concentrations (320 ppm) of the combined metals (Cr and Fe) treatment, more Fe (55%) was accumulated in Psoralea pinnata. This study however showed that Psoralea pinnata may not be an efficient phytoextraction plant for hyperaccumulation. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Les mycotoxines sont des métabolites secondaires de moisissures contaminant de façon naturelle de nombreuses denrées alimentaires, notamment les céréales. Le déoxynivalénol (DON), produit par Fusarium sp., est la mycotoxine la plus répandue dans le monde. Du fait de sa grande stabilité chimique, le DON est difficile à éliminer, et se retrouve dans les céréales et les produits finis ou il induit des effets toxiques pour l'homme et l'animal. De nouvelles stratégies de lutte sont mises en places, telle la transformation biologique utilisant des bactéries ou des plantes. En effet certaines bactéries possèdent des enzymes capables de transformer le DON en de nouveaux composés, le déepoxy-déoxynivalénol (DOM-1) et le 3-épi-déoxynivalénol (3-epi-DON). De plus, certaines plantes sont naturellement capables de transformer le DON dans le but de l'éliminer et de le détoxifier, formant ainsi le deoxynivalénol-3-ß-D-glucoside (D3G). L'objectif de cette thèse était d'évaluer la toxicité de ces dérivés du DON au niveau de l'intestin et du système immunitaire par le biais d'analyses in silico, in vitro, ex vivo et in vivo. Les tests de toxicité in vitro sur la lignée humaine intestinale cellulaire Caco-2 montrent que le DOM-1, le 3-epi-DON et le D3G n'étaient pas cytotoxiques, ils ne modifiaient ni la viabilité, ni la fonction de barrière des cellules, mesurée par la résistance électrique transépithéliale. Les tests de toxicité ex vivo sur des explants jéjunum porcin ont montré que le DOM-1, le 3-epi-DON ou le D3G n'induisaient pas de modifications histomorphologiques. En revanche, les explants exposés au DON montraient des lésions morphologiques et une régulation positive de l'expression des cytokines pro-inflammatoires. L'impact de ces trois dérivés a été également analysé sur l'expression de l'ensemble des gènes du tissu, avec une analyse microarray. Ceci a montré que ces dérivés du DON n'induisaient aucun changement dans l'expression des gènes par rapport au groupe contrôle. Le DON quand a lui exprimait différentiellement 747 sondes, correspondantes à 333 gènes impliqués dans l'immunité, la réponse inflammatoire, le stress oxydatif, la mort cellulaire, le transport moléculaire et la fonction mitochondriale. L'analyse in silico a montré que le D3G, contrairement au DON était incapable de se lier au site-A du ribosome, principale cible de la toxicité pour le DON. Les deux dérivés microbiens eux, étaient capables de se fixer au site-A au sein du ribosome, mais contrairement au DON ils ne formaient que deux liaisons hydrogènes au lieu de trois. De plus, ces trois dérivés n'induisaient pas de stress ribotoxique, d'activation des MAPKs (mitogen-activated protein kinases), et de réponse pro-inflammatoire. Une étude complémentaire a été menée in vivo pour évaluer la toxicité du DOM-1 chez le porc (gavage pendant 21 jours avec .0.14mg / kg de poids vif). Les résultats ont montré que le DOM-1, contrairement au DON n'induisait pas les effets toxiques du DON au niveau des paramètres zootechniques (pas de vomissements, aucune diminution de la consommation alimentaire ou de perte de poids), sur l'intestin et le foie (pas de dommages tissulaires), ou sur la réponse immunitaire (pas de réponse inflammatoire induite). En conclusion, nos résultats montrent l'efficacité de ces transformations enzymatiques. La déepoxydation et l'épimérisation bactérienne, ainsi que la glycosylation par les plantes permettent de sensiblement diminuer la toxicité du DON, passant par une absence de toxicité sur le ribosome avec une absence d'activation des MAPKs et de réponses inflammatoires. Dans ce contexte de contamination par les mycotoxines, ces méthodes de luttes alternatives semblent être des approches prometteuses. / The Fusarium sp. mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most frequently widespread mycotoxin worldwide. Due to its high structural stability, the elimination of DON, once present in cereals or feed materials, becomes difficult. Thereby, it is present in many cereals and final feed products, inducing several toxic effects on human and animals, and causing big economic losses. New strategies of to fight against mycotoxins were developed, as biological transformation, either by the use of bacteria or plants. Indeed, some microorganisms are able to transform DON in new products, by enzymatic reaction, forming the deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) and the 3-epi-deoxynivalenol (3-epi-DON). Moreover, some plants naturally own the capacity to glycosylate DON in the aim to detoxify it, forming the deoxynivalenol-3-ß-D-glucoside (D3G). The aim of this thesis was to assess the toxicity of these DON derivatives, on the intestine and immune response, using several approaches such as in silico, in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo models. On the human intestinal Caco-2 cell line, DOM-1, 3-epi-DON and D3G were not cytotoxic; they did not alter its viability and barrier function, as measured by the trans epithelial electrical resistance. The expression profile of DOM-1, 3-epi-DON and D3G-treated jejunal explants was similar to that of controls and these explants did not show any histomorphology alteration. On the other hand, the treatment of intestinal explants with DON, induced morphological lesions and upregulated the expression of proinflammatory cytokines. The impact of these three derivatives was also studied on intestinal explants with a pan-genomic transcriptomic analysis. Results show that the derivatives of DON did not induce any change on the gene expression in comparison to the control-treated explants. In contrary, DON-treated explants differentially expressed 747 probes, representing 323 genes involved in immune and inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, cell death, molecular transport and mitochondrial function. In silico analysis revealed that D3G, opposing to DON, was unable to bind to the A site of the ribosome, which is the main target for DON toxicity. Both DOM-1 and 3-epi-DON were able to fit into the pockets of the A site of the ribosome but only by forming two hydrogen bonds, while in this position, DON forms three hydrogen bonds. Moreover, the three derivatives do not elicit a ribotoxic stress, MAPKinase activation, and inflammatory response. Then, an in vivo study was carried out to assess the toxicity of DOM-1 on pig (feed forced during 21 days at 0.14 mg/Kg BW). The results showed that DOM-1 does not have as much toxic effects as DON on zootechnical parameters (no emesis induced, no decrease of food consumption or weight loss observed), on intestine and liver (no tissues damages), or on the immune response (no inflammatory response induced). Our data demonstrate that bacterial de-epoxidation or epimerization of deepoxy-DON modified its interaction with the ribosome, leading to an absence of MAPKinase activation and toxicity; and that the glycosylation of DON suppresses its ability to bind to the ribosome and decreases its intestinal toxicity. The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) remains an important challenge in many regions in the world. Thus, these biological detoxifications of DON seem to represent a new promising approach helping manage the problem of its contamination.

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