The purpose of this research was to answer longstanding calls to explore the learning and development of coaches in disability sport (DePauw, 1986; Reid & Prupas, 1998). We know very little about coaches in disability sport and although there exists a growing body of work that has explored coach learning, there is an absence of in-depth sociological research on disability coaching and coach education. In order to address this gap in the literature, this research sought to examine the nature of coach learning through analyses of coach education and coaching practice. Drawing upon a critical sociological framework, the research was conducted on the premise that understanding social practice can generate critical insights into the nature of coach learning. The research begins to answer some of the criticisms levelled at previous research by operationalising the sociological framework of Pierre Bourdieu in conjunction with disability studies, to analyse data generated through a two-year case study evaluation of an impairment-specific mode of coach education, and ethnographic data generated from eighteen-months of fieldwork in a specific disability coaching context. Altogether, data were collected through in-depth observations, interviews, focus groups and qualitative surveys to generate data that had both breadth, gathering data from large numbers of participants, and depth, by understanding in detail a particular coaching culture (Polkinghorne, 2005). The findings reveal how knowledge about disability was often marginalised in coach education, with engagement in the field functioning as principle source of knowledge about coaching in disability sport. As a result, disability-specific coach education contributed marginally to coach learning and functioned as a platform for the transmission of medical model discourses about disability, in terms of the pedagogy adopted and its effects on coaches knowledge. In the ethnographic study, analyses revealed how disability was assimilated into a high-performance coaching logic that structured coaches learning according to high-performance ideals. The process of learning was revealed to follow the logic of reproduction as alluded to by Bourdieu (1977, 1990a), and reinforced in social practice through the continual (re)adjustment of class habitus to structural conditions. The mechanisms underlying this process revealed learning to have a symbolic nature, mediated by power, resulting in the uncritical reproduction of ideology related to coaching disabled people. Thus, the research extends an understanding of coach learning, taking into consideration social structure and agency, as a basis for further critical inquiry into coaching in disability sport.

abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore and report on the impact of coaching as an embedded part of professional development has on teacher learning and practice in the context of educating English Language Learners (ELLs). A close examination was made of what teachers, coaches and principals believe to be effective professional development and how the relationship between a coach and teacher affects understanding of and classroom practice with a specific population of students. The research questions were (a) How can coaching support implementation of professional development goals over traditional development activities as reported by the teacher, coach and administrator? (b) What is the relationship between the coach and teacher? (c) How does the coaching process relate to self- reported coach and teacher knowledge of instruction and practice in the ELL context? I used a qualitative approach to gather data through classroom observations and in-depth interviews. The 17 participants came from Title 1 elementary schools with high ELL populations located in the central and west valley of Phoenix, Arizona. I analyzed the data deductively then coded and categorized participant responses in relation to the literature on professional development and coaching. The findings indicated that those involved perceived embedded coaching as an effective component of professional development. What I have now termed based on my study as Professional Development Praxis (PPD). They agreed that with a structured system of coaching in place, both teachers and coaches increased their knowledge of how to best instruct ELLs as well as enhanced their ability to put research-based strategies into classroom practice. The recommendation of this study is that districts, schools and professional developers provide training and support for educators in a meaningful, effective and student centered way. Professional development were educators are provided knowledge about ELLs, opportunities for practice of what they are learning in and out of training sessions and on-going collaboration and support as they work with their students. It is the job of everyone involved in the system to better prepare educators to meet the critical needs of students who come to school with specific linguistic and academic needs. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ed.D. Educational Administration and Supervision 2012

Bakgrund CrossFit definieras som konstant varierad funktionell träning som utförs med hög intensitet och kombinerar olympiska lyft, gymnastik och konditionsträning. Sportens snabba framväxt har medfört oro för skador. Det har visats att CrossFit-tränares involvering och närvaro minskar skadeförekomst, men det finns inget krav för utövare att delta i övervakad träning. Syfte Att undersöka CrossFit-tränares upplevelser av underlättande och försvårande faktorer för genomförande av skadepreventiva åtgärder. Vidare även studera tränares syn på vad tränarnärvaro har för betydelse för att förebygga skador. Design och metod En kvalitativ design användes. Fem CrossFit-tränare med mer än ett års erfarenhet av att vara tränare deltog. En kvalitativ innehållsanalys enligt Graneheims och Lundmans induktiva strategi användes för databearbetning. Resultat Bland de underlättande faktorerna beskrevs till exempel kategorin Kompetens som innefattade kunskap och utbildning. Bland de försvårande faktorerna beskrevs bland annat otillräcklig kunskap. Tränarens närvaro beskrevs som betydelsefull för att förebygga skadeförekomst. Upplevelser av färre skador, korrigering av utförande och mer fokus på teknik lyftes. Konklussio Resultatet stödjer vikten av att ha fokus på tränarnärvaro vid CrossFit-pass och presenterar underlättande och försvårande faktorer som kan vara av relevans för utvecklingen av framtida utbildning för CrossFit-tränare. / Background CrossFit is defined as constantly varied functional training and is performed in high intensity. It combines olympic lifting, gymnastics and metabolic conditioning. The rapid growth of the sport has caused concerns for injuries. There has been shown that the involvement and presence of CrossFit trainers reduces injury but there is no requirement for practitioners to participate in supervised training. Purpose To explore the facilitating and aggravating factors that CrossFit trainers experience for implementation of injury prevention. Furthermore, study the trainers’ view of how important the trainer’s prescense is for injury prevention. Design and method A qualitative design was used in this study. Five CrossFit trainers with more than one year experience of being a trainer participated. A qualitative content analysis was used according to Granehiem and Lundman’s inductive strategy for data processing. Results Among the faciliating factors were for example Competence described which included knowledge and education. Amongst aggravating factors insufficient knowledge were for exampel described. The presence of the trainer was described as meaningful to prevent injuries. Experiences of fewer injuries, correction of performance and greater focus on technique were brought to attention. Conclusion The result supports the importance of focusing on presence of the CrossFit trainer and presents facilitating and aggravating factors that may be relevant to the development of future education for CrossFit trainers.

Syftet med denna studie var att söka svar på hur individer upplever varaktiga effekter av coaching samt hur coachingen påverkat deras välbefinnande. De tre respondenterna i studien hade fått en blandning av ledarskapscoaching och livscoaching hos samma coach. En kvalitativ metod med semistrukturerade intervjuer användes för att få en djupgående förståelse för de tidigare klienternas upplevelser av coaching och därefter analyserades datan med hjälp av tematisk analys. Resultatet visade att samtliga upplevt ett ökat och varaktigt välbefinnande. Ytterligare effekter, som hos vissa av deltagarna även var bestående var: en större trygghet i sig själv och/eller i yrkesrollen, ett större mod, självkännedom och förändring genom ökad reflektion, medvetenhet och insikt samt utökade färdigheter/förmågor. Slutsatsen som kan dras av studien är att de effekter som tidigare klienter upplevt av coaching bidragit till personlig utveckling och ett ökat varaktigt välbefinnande.

The purpose of this Master’s thesis was to evaluate coaches’ program delivery in Golf Canada’s national youth programming, Learn to Play, regarding two components: (a) the consistency of teaching life skills and (b) the quality of program delivery. The Learn to Play program has recently been updated to include an explicit approach to teaching life skills through golf. Data collection included a pre-season interview, three in-season observations, a post-season questionnaire, and a post-season interview. Two articles were written. Using the implicit/explicit continuum of life skills development and transfer (Bean, Kramers, Forneris, & Camiré, 2018), Article One qualitatively explored coaches’ (N = 13; Mage = 38) consistency of life skills delivery across the season. The findings revealed five profiles, with coaches categorized as being either inconsistent (i.e., progressive, overenthusiastic, unaware) or consistent (i.e., non-intentional, intentional) in their approach to teaching life skills. Using the Program Quality Assessment in Youth Sport observational measure (Bean, Kramers, Camiré, Fraser-Thomas, & Forneris, 2018), Article Two quantitatively examined program quality with two groups of coaches (N = 14; Mage = 40) for two purposes: (a) to examine whether implementation of the original (n = 5) versus the updated (n = 9) program led to differences in program quality and (b) to assess whether there was consistency or discrepancy between researcher observation scores and coach self-report scores of program quality. The findings revealed that coaches using the updated program delivered higher quality programming than coaches using the original program. Coaches also reported higher program quality scores than the researchers observed, identifying discrepancies between coach self-perceptions and researcher observations. Collectively, the findings from this Master’s thesis are a novel contribution to the literature by providing a nuanced exploration into the teaching of life skills and quality of delivery of Golf Canada’s Learn to Play programming.

To gain a critical understanding of the lived challenges within the managerial cycle (recruitment, employment, termination) in professional league football, the research initially followed a qualitative approach in the form of semi-structured interviews. A total of 16 professional league managers completed a face-to-face interview using open ended questions, allowing them to share their true perspectives (Dale, 1996). The interview schedule concerned the managers' perceptions of challenges faced within the role, strategies to deal with the challenges, specific skills and qualities possessed, and future challenges within the role. Data were analysed via deductive and inductive content analysis (Biddle, Markland, Gilbourne, Chatzisarantis, & Sparkes, 2001; Côté, Samela, & Russel, 1995), and emerging themes were subjected to member checking (Sparkes, 1998). The range of experiences revealed a number of proposals for how to deal with cultural, organisational and personal related challenges. The managers’ ability to delegate responsibilities and to adapt effectively to changing environments seemed critical to avoid loops of accumulating problems. Unprofessional attitudes to recruitment and sackings seemed embedded in the culture. The eagerness for short-term results was perceived as a threat to sustainability in managerial work currently and in the future. The managerial cycle model was developed on the basis of Study One findings. Study Two aimed to examine the managerial cycle model by bringing in the internal (senior management and support staff) and external (Norwegian Football Association, League Managers’ Associations) key stakeholder views on the training, development and support of managers within the various phases of the managerial cycle (recruitment, employment and termination). A total of 21 internal (n=18) and external (n=3) key stakeholders completed a semi-structured interview, which was analysed via both deductive and inductive content analysis. The findings gave insight in senior management experiences regarding managerial recruitment and dismissals. Support staff members reported that both frequent changes of managers detracted the ability to work professionally and longitudinally. They also suggested that the managers’ receptivity to support was reduced in periods of high pressure. Further, managers were expected by their leaders to take care of their own development. These findings suggest that managers need to be skilled in self-directed learning to avoid superficiality in work. Preparing managers for the ability to adapt effectively to contextual changes appears to not be sufficiently integrated into the current formal training of managers. Study Three employed a case study approach to critically examine how the managerial lived experience might change over time. Three managers engaged in one Norwegian PL-club (full season) and one manager from an English League One club (four months) were regularly interviewed during various phases of the managerial cycle (recruitment, employment, termination). Ethnographic principles were employed in the study that aimed to better understand how the managerial experience might change across situations and conditions. The managerial experiences changed along with sporting results (ups and downs), and differed in levels of trust and communication internally. The findings argue that shared understanding and trust across organisational levels are needed to facilitate internal stability and long-term efficiency, meaning that the skills to establish these conditions are crucial for sustained sporting and organisational success. All the managers experienced challenges at cultural, organisational and personal levels related to the different phases of the managerial cycle and technical (understanding across professions), human, and conceptual skills were needed to deal with role related challenges. Given the complexity of the role, and the continuous and rapid changes that managers are exposed to, the current study suggests that contextual insights are needed to understand and ultimately advise or prepare managers sufficiently for their future role(s). Managers need consistency in their approach to gain trust from internal stakeholders, and sporting success seems to facilitate the support. To establish managerial consistency, the manager requires a clear philosophy based on cultural, organisational and personal understandings, combined with humbleness toward knowledge.

The field of expertise studies offers several models from which to develop training programs that accelerate the development of novice performers in a variety of domains. This research study implemented two methods of expertise-based training in a course to develop undergraduate peer academic coaches through a ten-week program. An existing training curriculum was enhanced by implementing results gleaned from a preliminary expert performance study, in which the superior, reproducible performance of seasoned professionals (counselors and academic advisors working with undergraduate students at a large Midwestern research university) was analyzed. Part-task, observational training activities were created for the expertise-based (XBT) training group while whole-task, simulation-based activities were created for the expert performance based (ExPerT) training group. Trainee performance in four targeted skill sets (asking questions, reflective listening, noticing reactions, and providing feedback) indicated few significant differences between the XBT and ExPerT training groups. The ExPerT group demonstrated a greater number of evocative statements, aimed at helping coaching clients change behaviors. Overall, the utility of the expert performance approach in developing training in various domains is promising, particularly if an appropriate balance of part-task and whole-task training activities can be found.

In swimming, technical performance is a vital indicator of successful performance; however, during phases of high-intensity training, technique can be negatively influenced by fatigue. Advances in video technology have made it possible to increase coaches’ capacity to monitor athletes’ technical performances during training. Yet research examining the biomechanical responses that occur with fatigue using video methods, which are applicable and relevant to coaches during training, is scarce. The limited research to date that has examined the biomechanical responses that occur with fatigue has been restricted to examining fatigue during race-like situations and have used technology which is not available for use by coaches during training. Whilst this research indicates that changes occur during races, it does not apply to coaches for use during training. As fatigue, and its management, is a vital component of the training process, identifying a method of monitoring fatigue during training, which is applicable to coaches, is essential for athlete development. This research is therefore intended to address this by exploring the implications of 2-dimensional (2-D) video analysis in the management of fatigue, during training, by competitive swimming coaches. To explore this, this thesis comprises of four studies. The aim of the first study was to investigate whether 2-D video analysis methods currently used by coaches can measure data validly and reliably. To achieve this, the accuracy, precision, reliability and validity of thirty-five variables (thirty-four technical measures and swim time) were calculated using Dartfish Pro Suite motion analysis software, version 6.0 (Dartfish Ltd, Fribourg, Switzerland) and compared to the smallest worthwhile change. By calculating and comparing these measures, only those technical variables which can be measured with accuracy and precision could be determined objectively. A series of fifteen variables (fourteen technical measures and swim time) were found to be precise, valid and reliable when measured using Dartfish Pro Suite motion analysis software, version 6.0. Using the previously established technical measures, the aim of the second study was to assess if these measures can determine whether technical changes can occur during a high-intensity training session. To achieve this, a group of seventeen elite breaststroke swimmers completed a standard swim set. This involved repeating maximal effort 100m swims on a limited swim-rest time, designed to induce a fatigued state representative of high-intensity training conditions. To determine whether technical changes as a result of fatigue could be detected, the fourteen kinematic technique variables and swim time (fifteen dependent variables in total) were recorded and analysed using 2-D Dartfish Pro Suite motion analysis software, version 6.0 from video recordings of the first and last 100m swim of each swimmer. In addition, 95% confidence intervals were determined to investigate any commonalities or individual differences among swimmers in changes in technical parameters. It was found that during one high-intensity session, technical changes can occur in a group of elite swimmers. The largest changes were shown in leg glide duration (64.6%), swim time (33.2%), stroke rate (35.3%), stroke length (-29.2%), and average velocity (-10.2%) and were shown to have statistically significant (p < 0.05) differences between the first and last 25m of the swim set. These changes were also shown to be common amongst all swimmers and occurred early in the swim set. To evaluate coaches understanding of fatigue and its management during training, the aim of the third study was to assess coaches’ current practices and knowledge regarding fatigue during training. To achieve this, a questionnaire was distributed to over 370 coaches throughout the UK. The questionnaire was separated into multiple sections which assessed: coaches’ current understanding of the topic of fatigue; the methods coaches’ employ to monitor fatigue during a training session; and the processes used to manage fatigue during the training process. It was found that up to 98% of the coaches consider fatigue, its effect and management important in the development of their swimmers. Despite this, there is a lack of consistency in knowledge and methods used by coaches to monitor this. As a result, coaches are continuing to use traditional methods to monitor their athletes which are quick and reliable, specifically stopwatches (100%) and visual observation (98%). Due to the predominant use of visual observation to monitor fatigue, and the identification of technical changes with fatigue, the aim of the fourth study was to assess whether coaches could visually identify changes in the previously established technical markers and whether this could be improved through education of fatigue and video analysis methods. To achieve this, two groups of ten competitive swimming coaches observed a series of videos of three swimmers taken pre- and post- training, and were asked to identify any technical factors which they perceived to change. One group underwent an intervention using Dartfish Pro Suite motion analysis software, version 6.0 and underwater analysis to assess whether this improved their ability to visually observe fatigue in elite swimmers. The remaining group of coaches acted as a control group and received no feedback. Following the one hour intervention, the coaches’ observations slightly improved, however this improvement was not statistically significant (p > 0.05) nor retained after 4 weeks. Although the coaches’ perceptions of fatigue during training varied, they did show a keen interest in further training and education on fatigue and 2-D video analysis. The results from this research indicate that 2-D video analysis is an effective and useful tool, which has practical applications: in monitoring fatigue during a training session; guiding training programmes to maximise training potential; and developing coaches’ identification and management of fatigue during training through education programmes.

Player's performance in competitive matches is partly determined by the systematic training programmes that they complete. The differences in the organisation of training may result in differences in the physiological stress placed on players. This study aimed to investigate the influence of training organisation on the physiological, metabolic and molecular responses to soccer-specific intermittent exercise in skeletal muscles. In Chapter 3, the physical demands of professional soccer training were examined by quantifying the physiological loads and work-rate profiles of elite players throughout the programmed pre-season and in-season training for a one week period. The physiological loads in pre-season were significantly higher than those in the in-season period (p < 0.05). Similar activity profiles were, however, observed during each training period irrespective of the time of the year. These findings demonstrate that pre- season training was more intensive than in-season training though these differences were not linked to changes in the activity patterns during sessions. Technical/tactical training seems to be an important component in increasing the physiological strain observed in pre-season training. This study also indicates that soccer training seems to elicit different demands to those associated with match-play. In Chapter 4, a laboratory-based soccer-specific training simulation (LSSTS) was devised on a motorized treadmill. Attempts were made to re-create both similar overall exercise intensities and patterns of discrete activity observed in training. The validity of this protocol was evaluated by comparing the physiological responses of professional players with those of healthy subjects who completed the LSSTS. Physiological measurements such as mean HR and % of HRmax associated with the simulation were similar to those obtained in the actual training session. These data suggest that the protocol is suitable in re-creating a soccer-specific training session in the laboratory. This protocol is, therefore, sufficient to use in investigations to study the physiological responses and the molecular adaptations of skeletal muscle to soccer-specific intermittent exercise. In Chapter 5, the effect of a single bout of soccer-specific intermittent exercise on metabolic stress and acute molecular responses associated with mitochondrial biogenesis was investigated in human skeletal muscle. The LSSTS was utilised as the sports-specific exercise protocol. The levels of blood metabolites and muscle glycogen were significantly altered during and after exercise (p < 0.05). Simulated soccer-specific training also acutely activated the expression of PGG-1a mRNA in human skeletal muscle (p < 0.05). There was, however, no significant change in the phosphorylation of AMPK and p38MAPK. This would suggest that the global effect of soccer-specific intermittent exercise on aerobic performance may be partly mediated by adaptations associated with mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle. ' In Chapter 6, the effect of prior soccer-specific training on the physiological, metabolic and molecular responses to a subsequent bout of soccer-specific intermittent exercise was evaluated. Two experimental trials (BETWEEN DA Y trial, one bout of soccer-specific intermittent exercise in a day Vs WITHIN DA Y trial, two consecutive bouts of soccer-specific intermittent exercise performed in a day) were completed on two separate occasions. There were significant increases in physiological responses during the second bout of exercise in the WITHIN DAY trial, compared to those obtained in the, BETWEEN DAY trial (p < 0.05). A more pronounced increase in NEFA and glycerol was observed in the WITHIN DAY trial compared with the BETWEEN DAY trial post-exercise following the second bout of exercise (p < 0.05). The expression of PGC-1a mRNA significantly increased following exercise compared to pre- and post-exercise values. There was, however, no difference in phosphorylation of AMPK and p38MAPK and the expression of PGC-1a mRNA between either trial. Based on these findings, it would seem that different approaches to training organisation may be more important for the acute physiotoqlca: responses to soccer-specific intermittent exercise than the molecular changes underpinning chronic adaptations.

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